• "A judge who delivers a false judgment is considered as if he destroyed the world."

The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) is the largest public transportation network in the United States, serving the New York metropolitan area, including parts of New Jersey. Its budget is divided into two primary components: the Operating and Capital Budget.

Operating Budget

The Operating Budget covers the day-to-day expenses of running subways, buses, commuter railroads, and other services. For 2024, the MTA's Adopted Operating Budget is approximately $19.29 billion. This budget is allocated as follows:

 Labor Costs: $11.79 billion

 NonLabor Costs: $4.48 billion

 Debt Service Payments: $2.82 billion

These figures are detailed in the New York City Council's budget report. 

Capital Budget

The Capital Budget funds long-term investments in infrastructure, such as system expansions, modernization projects, and significant repairs. The MTA's proposed Capital Plan for 20252029 is $68.4 billion, marking the most important funding request in its history. This plan aims to address critical infrastructure needs and system enhancements. 

Revenue Sources

The MTA's revenue comes from various sources:

Fares and Tolls: Approximately $6.87 billion Dedicated Taxes and Subsidies: Around $7.22 billion

Federal Aid: Including COVIDrelated assistance, totaling about $2.88 billion

The MTA faces significant financial challenges, including:

Funding Gaps: A $16.5 billion gap in the current 20202024 capital plan, initially expected to be funded by congestion pricing, has been delayed. 

Debt Obligations: Debt service payments constitute a substantial portion of the operating budget, impacting financial flexibility.

The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) offers its employees a defined benefit pension plan that guarantees a percentage of the final average salary for life. However, this traditional pension plan is becoming increasingly rare in the private sector, with only an estimated 18% of new hires in large private companies having access to such benefits. 

Pension Plan Costs

The MTA's pension plan costs are a significant component of its financial obligations. For instance, in 2022, the MTA's Defined Benefit Pension Plan reported total assets of approximately $5.37 billion, a decrease from $5.76 billion in 2021. This decline was attributed to underperformance in the plan's investments and contributions net of benefit payments and expenses during the year. 

Employer Contributions

The MTA contributes 8% of an employee's salary each year into the defined contribution plan, more than twice the 3.6% median contribution for typical large private companies. 

Financial Challenges

The MTA faces financial challenges related to its pension obligations. Projections indicate that annual benefit payments are expected to increase between 3.0% and 4.0% over the next decade, rising from $37 million in 2019 to $48 million in 2027. These increases are attributed to demographic and economic factors and costs associated with pension enhancements. 

Medicare and Medicaid are two of the largest federal programs in the United States, both in terms of enrollment and expenditure. Here's an overview of their budgets:

Spending Growth: In 2022, Medicare spending increased by 5.9% to $944.3 billion, accounting for 21% of the nation's total health expenditures. 

Projected Spending: By 2023, Medicare spending will surpass $1 trillion, reflecting the program's expanding role in healthcare financing. 

Medicaid spending grew by 9.6% in 2022, reaching $805.7 billion, representing 18% of total national health expenditures. 

The increase in spending was partly due to a record-high Medicaid enrollment of 91.2 million people in 2023, driven by policy changes and economic factors. 

Together, Medicare and Medicaid constitute a significant portion of federal mandatory spending. In fiscal year 2024, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) proposed a budget with $1.7 trillion in mandatory funding, primarily allocated to these programs. 

Economic Projections: Over the next decade, healthcare spending is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 5.6%, outpacing the projected GDP growth of 4.3%. This trend suggests that healthcare expenditures, including those for Medicare and Medicaid, will consume more of the economy.

Medicare and Medicaid Programs were established by President Lyndon B. Johnson when he signed the Social Security Amendments of 1965 into law.

Leonard D. Schaeffer was the first director of the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA), which later became CMS. He was appointed as HCFA’s first administrator in 1977.

Born on July 28, 1945, in Chicago, Illinois, Schaeffer grew up in Evanston, Illinois. He graduated from Princeton University in 1969. 

He served as the Deputy Director for Management at the Illinois Department of Mental Health and Developmental Disabilities, the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, and the Chairman of the Illinois Capital Development Board. 

In 1978, he was appointed Assistant Secretary for Management and Budget at the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. At age 33, he became the first Administrator of the Health Care Financing Administration (now the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services), overseeing Medicare and Medicaid programs. 

Transitioning to the private sector, Schaeffer held significant roles:

In 1986, Schaeffer became President and CEO of Blue Cross of California, which was near bankruptcy. He created WellPoint Health Networks in 1993. WellPoint became a leading health benefits company. 

Student Loan Marketing Association: As Executive Vice President and Chief Operating Officer, he managed the national secondary market for student loans. 

He is currently the Judge Robert Maclay Widney Chair and Professor at the University of Southern California (USC) and is a Senior Advisor to Whistler Capital Partners, a private equity firm.

Schaeffer serves on various boards, including the Brookings Institution and RAND Corporation.

The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) was established on October 15, 1966, by an act of Congress and officially began operations on April 1, 1967. It was created to consolidate federal transportation functions under one umbrella, addressing the increasing complexity of the nation's transportation systems and the need for coordinated policy-making.

 Current Structure, Responsibilities, and Numbers

 Employment

- The DOT employs approximately 55,000 people, including full-time federal employees and contractors, across its various branches and agencies.

Divisions and Branches

The DOT oversees 13 agencies with distinct responsibilities:

1. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA): Regulates and oversees civil aviation.

2. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA): Manages the national highway system.

3. Federal Transit Administration (FTA): Oversees public transit systems.

4. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA): Regulates railroads and promotes rail safety.

5. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA): Promotes vehicle safety and road safety standards.

6. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA): Ensures safe transportation of hazardous materials.

7. Maritime Administration (MARAD): Promotes and regulates the U.S. merchant marine and waterborne transportation.

8. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA): Regulates the trucking industry.

9. Office of the Secretary (OST): Provides overall policy and leadership.

10. Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation (GLS): Maintains and operates the seaway.

11. Office of Inspector General (OIG): Conducts audits and investigations.

12. Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation (SLSDC): Focuses on seaway operations.

13. Build America Bureau: Supports infrastructure investments and innovation.

 Budget

- The DOT’s annual budget is typically around $87 billion, funding transportation infrastructure, safety programs, and research initiatives.

 Key Responsibilities

- Safety Regulation: Establishing safety standards for all modes of transportation.

- Infrastructure Development: Overseeing construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, airports, and ports.

- Policy Making: Coordinating national transportation policies and priorities.

- Innovation: Supporting the development of autonomous vehicles, electric vehicles, and modernized air traffic systems.

- Public Transit Support: Providing grants to improve urban and rural transit systems.

 Key Figures and Circumstances Behind Its Creation

1. President Lyndon B. Johnson:

   - President Johnson was a central figure in the creation of the DOT. He championed its establishment as part of his broader vision for modernizing America's infrastructure and ensuring safety and efficiency in transportation. He signed the Department of Transportation Act into law in 1966.

2. Alan S. Boyd:

   - Alan S. Boyd was the first Secretary of Transportation, sworn in on January 16, 1967. He played a pivotal role in shaping the department during its formative years.

   - Background:

     - Before becoming Secretary of Transportation, Boyd served as the Chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board and the Under Secretary of Commerce for Transportation. These roles gave him valuable experience in managing and regulating complex transportation systems.

Alan S. Boyd (July 20, 1922 – October 18, 2020) was an influential figure in U.S. transportation history, known as the first Secretary of Transportation and a trailblazer in the aviation and transportation industries.

 Early Life and Education

- Born: July 20, 1922, in Jacksonville, Florida.

- Education:

  - Graduated from the University of Florida in 1941.

  - Earned a law degree from the University of Virginia in 1948 after serving in World War II.

 Military Service

- Boyd served in the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II, where he gained firsthand knowledge of aviation that would later influence his career.

 Career Highlights

1. Early Career in Transportation:

   - Boyd worked as a lawyer specializing in transportation law, which marked the beginning of his deep involvement in the field.

2. Chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) (1961–1965):

   - Appointed by President John F. Kennedy, Boyd became the youngest CAB chairman in history.

   - He helped usher in a new era of air travel, focusing on deregulation and modernization.

   - Advocated for fair competition and affordable airfares, promoting growth in the aviation sector.

3. Under Secretary of Commerce for Transportation (1965–1967):

   - Boyd served in the Department of Commerce, where he oversaw transportation policies and programs. His work there set the stage for the creation of the Department of Transportation.

4. First Secretary of Transportation (1967–1969):

   - Appointed by President Lyndon B. Johnson as the first Secretary of the newly established U.S. Department of Transportation.

   - Boyd unified disparate federal transportation agencies under one umbrella, fostering better coordination and efficiency.

   - Focused on aviation safety, highway infrastructure, and urban transportation issues.

   - Promoted innovation in transportation policy and systematized safety protocols across various modes of transit.

5. Later Career:

   - President of Illinois Central Railroad (1969–1972): Boyd shifted focus to the private sector, helping modernize one of the nation's key railroads.

   - President of Amtrak (1978–1982): Boyd played a significant role in guiding the national passenger rail system through its formative years, addressing operational and financial challenges.

 Legacy and Recognition

- Boyd is celebrated as a pioneer in U.S. transportation policy, advocating for modernization, safety, and efficiency across all modes of transit.

- His leadership during the creation of the DOT solidified the department’s role as a cornerstone of American infrastructure development.

 Personal Life and Passing

- Boyd married Flavil Townsend in 1943, and they had two children.

- He passed away on October 18, 2020, in Seattle, Washington, at the age of 98. Boyd's career left an enduring impact on U.S. transportation systems and policies.

 Major Controversies Involving the DOT

1. Airline Deregulation (1978)

   - The Airline Deregulation Act, passed during President Jimmy Carter's administration, marked a significant shift in DOT policy. While deregulation reduced fares and increased competition, it led to controversies such as the decline of smaller regional airlines and reduced service to rural areas.

2. Infrastructure Funding Shortfalls

   - Controversy has frequently surrounded the funding and management of infrastructure projects, including debates over gas tax increases, mismanagement of highway funds, and disputes between federal and state governments over spending priorities.

3. Highway Safety Standards

   - The DOT’s National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has faced criticism over its handling of vehicle recalls, such as the Takata airbag scandal and the General Motors ignition switch defects, both of which were linked to fatalities.

4. Air Traffic Modernization (NextGen)

   - The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), a part of the DOT, has struggled with implementing NextGen, a multibillion-dollar program to modernize air traffic control. Delays, budget overruns, and resistance from airlines and air traffic controllers have plagued the program.

5. Bridge and Tunnel Safety

   - High-profile disasters like the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River Bridge in 2007 raised questions about DOT oversight and funding of bridge safety programs.

6. Pipeline Safety

   - The DOT’s Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) has faced scrutiny for its response to major pipeline spills, such as the 2010 Kalamazoo River oil spill, which was the largest inland oil spill in U.S. history.

7. High-Speed Rail Projects

   - DOT’s support for high-speed rail has sparked controversy, particularly in California, where costs for the state’s bullet train project ballooned, leading to criticism of DOT’s oversight and allocation of federal funds.

8. Climate Change Policies

   - Recent controversies have included debates over the DOT’s role in promoting electric vehicles (EVs) and fuel efficiency standards, with conflicts between industry groups, environmentalists, and state governments.

Simon Ramo is frequently cited as the father of the US Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) system and the founder of systems engineering.
Ramo later created Space Technology Laboratories (STL) as a subsidiary of Ramo-Wooldridge Corp. a year before the USSR’s Sputnik launch. STL was the first US company to receive a contract for a spacecraft from the newly established National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). An STL spacecraft was the first to reach the outer planets and to go beyond the solar system into far outer space.

Ramo held more than 40 patents, the last of which he received at the age of 100. Thus, he is the oldest patent holder in US history.

He received numerous awards and honors, including the National Medal of Science (1979) from President Jimmy Carter for his pioneering work in electronics research and development. President Gerald Ford appointed him chair of the President’s Advisory Committee on Science and Technology. In 1983, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian award, from President Ronald Reagan. He was inducted into the Business Hall of Fame and, in 1999, received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Smithsonian Institution.

He died June 27, 2016, at age 103, in his home in Santa Monica.

Flossi Dislikes Tyrants, Dictators and Fools

H.L. Mencken, the American journalist, satirist, and cultural critic, was known for his biting wit and cynical views on politics, government, and the masses.

 On Politics and Politicians

"The urge to save humanity is almost always only a false face for the urge to rule it."

"A good politician is quite as unthinkable as an honest burglar."

"All government, in essence, is a conspiracy against the superior man. Its one permanent object is to oppress him and cripple him."

"The demagogue is one who preaches doctrines he knows to be untrue to men he knows to be idiots.”

"Democracy is the theory that the common people know what they want and deserve to get it good and hard."

 On Authoritarianism and Government

"The worst government is often the most moral. One composed of cynics is often very tolerant and humane. But when fanatics are on top, there is no limit to oppression."

"Every decent man is ashamed of the government he lives under."

"Government is a broker in pillage, and every election is a sort of advance auction sale of stolen goods."

 On the Masses and Democracy

"No one ever went broke underestimating the intelligence of the American public.”

"The average man does not want to be free. He simply wants to be safe."

"Democracy is the art and science of running the circus from the monkey cage."

 On Human Nature and Society

"The capacity of human beings to bore one another seems to be vastly greater than that of any other animal."

"Puritanism: The haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy."

"The average man avoids truth as diligently as he avoids arson, regicide, or piracy on the high seas, and for the same reason: because he has no use for it."

Flossi and The Mega Coral in the Solomon Islands

The discovery of corals as marine organisms with skeletal structures can be traced back to ancient times. Still, the scientific understanding and documentation of corals began to take shape during the Renaissance:

1. Ancient Observations:

   - Aristotle (384–322 BC) and other ancient scholars like Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24 – 79) wrote about coral in their works. They knew of the red coral, commonly used for jewellery, but didn't understand the biological nature of corals.

2. Renaissance and Early Modern Science:

   - Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) studied corals and even suggested that the fossils found in the mountains might indicate that these areas were once under the sea, showing an early understanding of geological processes related to corals.

   - Conrad Gessner (1516–1565), in his book "De Omni rerum fossilium genere, gems, lapidibus, metallic, et huiusmodi" (1565), included descriptions of coral, treating them as plant-like organisms.

3. Scientific Recognition:

   - Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) was instrumental in formally classifying life forms. In his system of binomial nomenclature, he placed corals in the plant kingdom, which was a common mistake at the time since their animal nature wasn't fully understood. He grouped them under the genus Corallium.

4. Modern Understanding:

   - The animal nature of corals was not widely recognised until much later. Jean-André Peyssonnel (1694–1759), in the 18th century, was one of the first to argue that corals were animals, not plants, based on his observations of their growth and reproduction. However, his ideas were not immediately accepted.

   Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) contributed significantly to understanding corals as animals in the 19th century through his palaeontology and comparative anatomy work. He studied both living and fossil corals extensively.

Here are some of the world's notable largest coral structures or colonies:

1. Great Barrier Reef (Australia):

   - This is the world's largest coral reef system, stretching over 2,300 kilometres (1,429 miles) along the northeast coast of Australia. It's not a single coral colony but a vast system comprising over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands, covering approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 square miles).

2. The Mega Coral in the Solomon Islands:

   Recently discovered, this coral is reported to be the largest individual coral colony in the world. It is about 112 feet wide and 105 feet long and has an estimated age of 300 to 500 years. It's so large that it can be seen from space.

3. Big Momma (American Samoa):

   Before the Solomon Islands coral discovery, "Big Momma" was considered the largest. This coral colony, located in the National Park of American Samoa, measures about 22.4 meters across and 8 meters tall. It's estimated to be between 420 and 652 years old.

4. Raja Ampat (Indonesia):

   While not a single coral is found in the Raja Ampat archipelago, it is renowned for its incredibly high coral diversity, hosting more than 537 species. This area is part of the Coral Triangle, a marine region known for its rich biodiversity.

5. New Caledonia Barrier Reef (France):

   - This is the second-largest coral reef system in the world, encompassing over 1,500 kilometres of the reef. It forms a double barrier reef around the main island of New Caledonia and includes the world's largest lagoon, covering around 9,000 square miles.

6. Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System:

   - Extending over 1,000 kilometres from the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico down through Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, this is the second largest barrier reef in the world after the Great Barrier Reef.

7. Red Sea Coral Reef:

   - Known for its resilience to high water temperatures, the Red Sea has one of the longest continuous reef systems, stretching approximately 2,000 kilometres along the coastline of various countries, including Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan.

The composition of the U.S. Cabinet has evolved significantly since the country's founding, reflecting changes in governmental roles, priorities, and the expansion of federal responsibilities. Here’s an overview of how it has transformed over time:

 1. The Original Cabinet (1789)

   - Established by George Washington, the first U.S. Cabinet had only four departments:

     - Secretary of State (Thomas Jefferson)

     - Secretary of the Treasury (Alexander Hamilton)

     - Secretary of War (Henry Knox)

     - Attorney General (Edmund Randolph)

   - These positions were designed to handle the primary concerns of the new nation: foreign relations, finances, defence, and legal matters.

 2. 19th Century Additions

   - As the U.S. expanded geographically and economically, new departments were created to handle specialised areas:

     - Navy Department (1798) - Eventually merged with the Department of War to form the Department of Defense in 1947.

     Post Office Department (1829): Initially part of the Cabinet, it was reorganised as the independent U.S. Postal Service in 1971.

     The Department of the Interior (1849) was created to manage domestic issues such as Native American affairs, public lands, and natural resources.

     Department of Justice (1870): Although the Attorney General had existed since 1789, this formally established it as a department.

 3. Early 20th Century Expansions

   - Rapid industrialisation and progressive reforms led to further Cabinet expansion:

     - Department of Agriculture (1889) - Responded to the growing importance of farming.

     - Department of Commerce and Labor (1903) - Split in 1913 to create two separate departments as labour issues grew in importance:

       - Department of Commerce

       - Department of Labor

 4. Post-War and Modern Additions (20th Century)

   - With the New Deal, WWII, and the rise of modern government, several new departments were established to address the complex needs of a changing society:

     - Department of Defense (1947) - Merged the Department of War and the Department of the Navy, adding the newly created Air Force.

     - Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (1953) - Later split to form:

       - Department of Health and Human Services (1979)

       - Department of Education (1979)

     - Department of Housing and Urban Development (1965) - Focused on urban issues and housing.

     - Department of Transportation (1967) - Created in response to the need for federal transportation oversight.

     - Department of Energy (1977) - Addressed the importance of energy policy.

 5. Recent Additions and Homeland Security (21st Century)

   - The 21st century saw two new departments reflecting national security and veterans' needs:

     - Department of Veterans Affairs (1989) - Elevated to Cabinet status to address the growing needs of veterans.

     - Department of Homeland Security (2003) - Established in response to the 9/11 attacks, consolidating multiple agencies to protect against terrorism and manage border security.

 6. Cabinet-Level Positions Beyond Departments

   - In addition to department heads, other positions now hold Cabinet-level status:

     - U.S. Trade Representative

     - Director of National Intelligence

     - Ambassador to the United Nations

     - Director of the Office of Management and Budget

     - Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency

     - Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers

     - Small Business Administration Administrator (sometimes included)

 Trends and Observations

   - Growth in Number: The Cabinet started with four members and has grown to more than 15 departments and various other Cabinet-level positions.

   - Specialization and Complexity: Cabinet positions reflect the specialisation required by a more complex society and government responsibilities.

   - Security and Welfare: Recent additions emphasise national security, welfare, and environmental concerns, aligning with modern priorities.

The record for the highest number of new members in the U.S. Congress was set during the 63rd Congress (1913–1915), when a large wave of new members joined following the election of 1912. This influx was mainly due to several unique factors:

1. Electoral Changes: The 17th Amendment, which established the direct election of senators, was ratified in 1913, leading to the election of new senators in several states.

2. Political Shifts: The 1912 election saw a significant split in the Republican Party. Former President Theodore Roosevelt ran as a Progressive (or "Bull Moose" candidate), which divided the vote and led to a Democratic landslide in Congress and the White House with the election of Woodrow Wilson. This shift brought many new members from both parties.

3. Territorial Changes: The addition of Arizona and New Mexico as states in 1912 also increased congressional representation.

During this period, he marked a unique transformation in Congress, with an influx of freshman senators and representatives, creating one of the most substantial turnovers in the history of the legislative body.

During the 63rd Congress (1913–1915), the Senate Majority Leader Thomas S. Martin (D-VA) and Vice President Thomas R. Marshall as the presiding officer led the Senate. However, the concept of a formal “majority leader” was not as established as today, and party leadership was more informal. Woodrow Wilson was president then, with Democrats holding the majority in both the Senate and the House.

Here’s a closer look at both key figures:

 Thomas S. Martin

Given his influence and seniority, Thomas Staples Martin of Virginia was considered the de facto leader of the Democrats in the Senate. However, he did not hold the title "majority leader" in the same sense it is understood today. Martin was a conservative Democrat and a proponent of states’ rights who often worked to unify his party behind important legislation.

Background and Accomplishments:

Early Life and Career: Martin was a Confederate veteran who served in the Civil War as a teenager. After the war, he studied law at the University of Virginia, which propelled him into a career in law and politics in Virginia.

- Political Influence: As a senior Democratic senator, he was influential in helping President Wilson pass landmark Progressive Era legislation, including the Federal Reserve Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act.

- Advocacy for States’ Rights: Martin often aligned with the South’s conservative bloc, opposing specific Progressive reforms that he felt overreached federal authority.

 Vice President Thomas R. Marshall

Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana served as Vice President and was technically the Senate’s presiding officer. He was a lawyer and the former governor of Indiana known for his wit and dry humour.

Background and Accomplishments:

- Early Life and Career: Marshall was a lawyer and served as the governor of Indiana from 1909 to 1913. His governorship was known for implementing progressive reforms, such as child labour laws and educational improvements.

- Role as Vice President: Although primarily ceremonial at the time, Marshall was known for his humorous remarks and amicable personality. He famously quipped, “What this country needs is a good five-cent cigar.”

Armistice Day, observed on November 11, 1918, it marked the end of World War I. It was officially recognised as a federal holiday in the United States in 1938. The day was meant to honour those who had served in World War I.

- Post-World War II and Korean War: By the 1950s, with the advent of World War II and the Korean War, there was a growing recognition that Armistice Day did not adequately honour all American veterans, particularly those who had served in these subsequent conflicts. 

- Legislation and Change: In 1954, at the urging of veterans' service organisations, the 83rd U.S. Congress amended the Act of 1938 by replacing the word "Armistice" with "Veterans." This change was made to honour American veterans of all wars, not just those who served in World War I. On June 1, 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed this legislation into law, officially renaming the holiday to Veterans Day.

The renaming symbolised a shift from commemorating the end of one war to celebrating and honouring all U.S. military veterans for their patriotism, love of country, and willingness to serve and sacrifice for the common good. This adjustment reflected a broader acknowledgement of the service and sacrifices made by all American veterans, not confined to any single war or conflict.

In World War I, approximately 116,516 American soldiers died in total. This number includes both combat and non-combat deaths, like those from disease and accidents. Specifically:

- Battle Deaths: 53,402

- Other Deaths in Service (Non-Theater): 63,114

These figures encompass the full scope of American military fatalities during the war, reflecting both the direct combat action on the battlefields of Europe and other causes of death like disease, which was also a significant factor in wartime mortality.

The exact number of soldiers who died just as the Armistice went into effect on November 11, 1918, during World War I is not precisely documented. Still, there were significant casualties on that day. Estimates indicate:

- Total Casualties: Approximately 10,944 casualties, of which:

  - Killed: 2,738 soldiers died on the last day of the war.

These numbers include casualties from all sides (Allied and German forces) and reflect the tragic reality that even as the Armistice was signed and known to go into effect at 11:00 a.m., fighting continued in various sectors of the Western Front, leading to unnecessary loss of life just before peace was officially declared.

American soldiers who died in World War I are buried in various locations, primarily reflecting the following categories:

Overseas American Cemeteries:

   - Suresnes American Cemetery, Paris, France: Contains graves from both World War I and II, with more than 1,500 Americans from WWI buried here.

   - Oise-Aisne American Cemetery, near Fere-en-Tardenois, France: This cemetery holds 6,012 American war dead, most of whom died in the area in 1918 during the war.

   - Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery, Romagne-sous-Montfaucon, France: With 14,246 graves, it's the largest WWI cemetery for American soldiers.

   - Somme American Cemetery, Bony, France: Dedicated to American soldiers who fought and died in the battles of the Somme and the Hindenburg Line.

   - St. Mihiel American Cemetery, Thiaucourt, France: Over 4,150 American soldiers are buried here, many from the St. Mihiel offensive.

   - Aisne-Marne American Cemetery, Belleau, France: This site commemorates those who died in the Battle of Belleau Wood and other nearby engagements.

Over the past century, the Swiss franc (CHF) has demonstrated remarkable stability and strength against major currencies, reflecting Switzerland's robust economic policies and safe-haven status. Below is an overview of its performance relative to the U.S. dollar (USD), British pound (GBP), euro (EUR), and Japanese yen (JPY).

1. Swiss Franc vs U.S. Dollar (USD):

- Historical Performance: In 1924, 1 USD was equivalent to approximately 5.2 CHF. By 2024, this rate had shifted to about 1 USD, equaling 0.90 CHF, indicating a significant appreciation of the Swiss franc against the U.S. dollar over the century.

- Key Factors: The U.S. has experienced high inflation and increased debt levels, while Switzerland has maintained low inflation and prudent fiscal policies, contributing to the franc's strength.

2. Swiss Franc vs. British Pound (GBP):

- Historical Performance: In 1924, 1 GBP was worth around 25 CHF. By 2024, 1 GBP equalled approximately 1.20 CHF, showcasing a substantial appreciation of the Swiss franc against the British pound.

- Key Factors: Post-World War II economic challenges and inflationary pressures in the UK led to the pound's depreciation, whereas Switzerland's stable economy bolstered the franc's value.

3. Swiss Franc vs. Euro (EUR):

- Historical Performance: The euro was introduced in 1999, replacing several European currencies. At its inception, 1 EUR was equivalent to about 1.60 CHF. By 2024, this rate had adjusted to approximately 1 EUR, equaling 1.05 CHF, indicating the franc's appreciation against the euro.

- Key Factors: Economic disparities among Eurozone countries and periodic crises have affected the euro's stability, while the Swiss franc has remained a preferred safe-haven currency.

4. Swiss Franc vs. Japanese Yen (JPY):

- Historical Performance: In 1924, 1 CHF was equivalent to approximately 10 JPY. By 2024, 1 CHF equaled about 120 JPY, reflecting the franc's appreciation against the yen over the century.

- Key Factors: Both currencies are considered safe havens; however, Japan's prolonged deflationary periods and economic stagnation have led to the yen's relative weakening compared to the franc.

Fighting wildfires requires specialised chemicals and equipment to contain and extinguish fires, protect firefighters, and manage the challenging conditions. Here are some of the critical tools and chemicals:

 Chemicals

1. Fire Retardants: Chemicals like Phos-Chek are dropped from planes and helicopters to slow the fire's spread. They create a fire-resistant barrier by coating vegetation, which reduces flammability and limits the fire’s fuel source.

2. Water Enhancers: Gels like FireIce or Thermo-Gel can be mixed with water to increase their ability to cling to surfaces. This creates a protective layer on structures or vegetation that resists ignition.

3. Foams: Firefighting foams, such as Class A Foam, are added to water and work by increasing its surface tension, helping it penetrate burning materials more effectively. They also cool the fire and limit the oxygen supply to the flames.

4. Suppressants: Short-term suppressants, such as wetting agents and Class A foams, help reduce the intensity of flames, giving firefighters more time to control the fire's spread.

 Equipment

1. Fire Engines: Specially designed engines for wildfire management come equipped with off-road capabilities and high-clearance suspension. They have pumps, hoses, tanks carrying water and other firefighting agents.

2. Helicopters and Air Tankers: Helicopters are used for water drops or deploying fire retardants, while larger air tankers can carry thousands of gallons of retardant or water for aerial drops over large areas.

3. Hand Tools: Tools like Pulaskis, which combine an ax and a hoe, and McLeods, a rake-hoe hybrid, are used to dig fire lines, removing vegetation down to the bare soil, to prevent the fire from spreading.

4. Chainsaws and Bulldozers: These are used to cut down trees, clear vegetation, and create firebreaks. Bulldozers are especially helpful in creating broad fire lines to block the fire’s path.

5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Wildland firefighters wear specialised PPE, including flame-resistant clothing, helmets, goggles, and gloves, and carry fire shelters for emergency protection.

6. Fire Shelters: These emergency devices, made from layers of aluminium foil and silica, can be deployed in extreme situations to reflect heat and create an insulating layer around firefighters.

7. Drones: Equipped with thermal imaging cameras, drones are increasingly used to survey wildfires, track their progress, and locate hotspots, especially in rugged or remote areas with limited visibility.

FireIce is produced by GelTech Solutions, an innovative technology company specialising in eco-friendly fire prevention and suppression products. 

Thermo-Gel is manufactured by Thermo Technologies, LLC, a company dedicated to developing cost-effective products to combat fire-related losses.  

Several manufacturers produce Class A foam concentrates, essential in combating fires involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, paper, and vegetation. Notable producers include:

- Perimeter Solutions: Offers a range of Class A foam concentrates under the PHOS-CHEK® brand, designed to enhance water's effectiveness in firefighting. 

- Chemguard: Provides Class A foam concentrates that combine foaming and wetting agents, suitable for various firefighting applications. 

- National Foam: Produces environmentally responsible Class A foam concentrates like KnockDown® and Responder®, both designed for effective fire suppression. 

- ANSUL: Offers Class A foam agents formulated to reduce water's surface tension, providing superior wetting and penetrating characteristics for firefighting. 

- Fomtec: Develops and distributes firefighting foams, including Class A foam concentrates, suitable for various fire protection needs. 

These manufacturers provide various Class A foam products tailored to different firefighting scenarios, effectively suppressing fires involving common combustible materials.

Among the companies mentioned, Perimeter Solutions is publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol PRM. 

GelTech Solutions, the manufacturer of FireIce, is also publicly traded on the OTCQB Exchange under the ticker symbol GLTC. 

The other companies—Chemguard, National Foam, ANSUL, and Fomtec—are privately held and not listed on public stock exchanges.

Several manufacturers produce Pulaski and McLeod tools, which are essential in firefighting and land management. Notable producers include:

Pulaski Tools:

- Council Tool: A renowned American manufacturer offering high-quality Pulaski axes. 

- Warwood Tool: Produces Pulaski axes adhering to traditional specifications and is suitable for chopping and digging tasks. 

- Barebones Living: Offers Pulaski axes designed for functionality and aesthetic appeal. 

McLeod Tools:

- Council Tool: Manufactures McLeod tools with high-carbon steel blades and durable handles, meeting U.S. Forest Service specifications. 

- Nupla: Provides McLeod fire tools featuring flame-resistant handles and robust construction. 

- Flamefighter: Offers McLeod tools with fiberglass handles, designed for wildland firefighting applications. 

Council Tool and Nupla are privately held and not publicly traded among the mentioned companies. Warwood Tool, Barebones Living, and Flamefighter are privately owned and not listed on public stock exchanges. Therefore, none of these companies are publicly traded. 

The regime under Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has executed, killed, or imprisoned many individuals.

 Executed or Killed:

Mohsen Shekari - Executed for his involvement in protests, specifically for allegedly blocking a street and injuring a member of the Basij militia during the demonstrations following Mahsa Amini's death.

Majidreza Rahnavard - Publicly hanged in November 2022, accused of killing a member of the Basij paramilitary force during the protests.

Mohammad Mehdi Karami - Executed for his alleged role in the death of a Basij member. He was known for being a national karate champion.

Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini was also executed alongside Mohammad Mehdi Karami for the same incident.

Saleh Mirhashemi, Majid Kazemi, Saeed Yaghoobi - These individuals were executed in 2023 for their roles in protests and accused of crimes like "moharebeh" (waging war against God).

Asra Panahi - A 15-year-old girl mentioned in social media posts for her death after allegedly being beaten by the police for refusing to sing praises to Khamenei. However, detailed verification of such incidents can be challenging due to the regime's control over information.

 Jailed or Tortured:

Toomaj Salehi - A rapper arrested for speaking out against the regime and supporting the protests. He faced torture and was imprisoned.

Shervin Hajipour—Known for his song supporting the protests, he was jailed but later released on bail.

Narges Mohammadi - A prominent human rights activist and Nobel Peace Prize winner, she has been repeatedly imprisoned. Reports mentioned her being among seventeen female political prisoners attacked by regime forces.

Manouchehr Bakhtiari - His son was killed during the 2019 protests, and he faced arrest, torture, and imprisonment for his activism.

In 1940, the Nazis formed a Dutch branch of the Waffen-SS, recruiting Dutch men to serve in the German military forces. Many of these men were members of or sympathetic to the NSB, and they embraced Nazi ideology, including anti-Semitism. Thousands of Dutch men joined the Waffen-SS and were trained to fight alongside German troops.

- Role in Anti-Jewish Actions: While many Dutch SS recruits fought on the Eastern Front, some served in security operations within the Netherlands, assisting the Gestapo and SD (Security Service) in rounding up Jews, Communists, and other “undesirables.” The Dutch SS members were known for their brutality, often involved in raids on Jewish homes and synagogues.

- Deportation Assistance: Dutch SS forces aided in raids and arrests of Jews, contributing to the effectiveness of the Nazi deportation efforts. Many Dutch Jews, who had been hiding or using false identities, were discovered and captured due to Dutch SS members' cooperation.

 3. Henneicke Column and Economic Collaboration

The Henneicke Column, a group named after its leader, Wim Henneicke, was one of the most notorious collaborators involved in identifying Jews in hiding. Unlike the NSB or SS, the Henneicke Column was not motivated by ideology but rather by financial incentives offered by the Nazi occupiers.

- Bounty Hunters of Jews: The Henneicke Column specialized in tracking down and betraying Jews who were hiding or had gone underground. Each captured Jew resulted in a bounty paid by the German authorities, motivating members to pursue this “work” with zeal.

- Impact on Jewish Deportations: Between March and September 1943, the Henneicke Column captured around 8,000 Jews. Many of those captured were subsequently deported to concentration and extermination camps, including Auschwitz and Sobibor, where they were murdered.

 4. The Role of Local Police and Bureaucratic Collaboration

Beyond the NSB, SS, and Henneicke Column, the Dutch police and civil service also played a critical role in the Nazi’s anti-Jewish policies. Many Dutch police officers, administrators, and other civil servants cooperated with the Germans, either out of fear or in support of Nazi policies.

- Enforcement of Anti-Jewish Measures: Dutch police and bureaucrats were involved in enforcing anti-Jewish laws, including the registration and confiscation of Jewish property, the enforcement of ghettos, and the issuance of identity cards.

- Deportation Support: The Dutch police often assisted in the physical deportation of Jews from their homes to collection points and transit camps like Westerbork, from where Jews were sent to extermination camps. Some police and civil servants, though a minority, actively resisted these measures and aided Jews, but overall, a significant part of the Dutch bureaucratic apparatus contributed to the Nazi persecution.

 5. Impact of Collaboration on Dutch Jewry

Approximately 140,000 Jews lived in the Netherlands at the time of the German invasion. Due to widespread collaboration, including active participation by Dutch fascists and certain segments of the police and bureaucracy, around 75% of Dutch Jews were murdered, one of the highest death rates of Jewish populations in Western Europe.

Here are some examples of foods that are available in the United States but are banned or restricted in Europe due to health concerns:

1. Mountain Dew: This product contains brominated vegetable oil (BVO), which is used as an emulsifier but has been linked to health concerns such as neurological impairment. Europe and Japan have banned BVO in food and beverages.

2. Skittles: The popular candy contains Titanium Dioxide as a colourant. However, the EU has banned it due to concerns about its potential to damage DNA and cause cancer.

3. Farmed Salmon: In the U.S., farmed salmon is often fed synthetic astaxanthin to achieve its pink colour, but this is banned in Europe. The EU allows only natural astaxanthin, as synthetic versions may contain harmful chemicals.

4. Bread with Potassium Bromate: Many U.S. baked goods use potassium bromate as a dough conditioner to increase elasticity. However, this additive is banned in the EU, Canada, and several other countries because it is a possible carcinogen.

5. Instant Mashed Potatoes: Some U.S. brands include butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) as preservatives. Both are banned in the EU and Japan because they may be carcinogenic.

6. Frosted Flakes and Other Cereals: Some cereals in the U.S. contain artificial colours like Yellow 5, Yellow 6, and Red 40. These colours are associated with hyperactivity in children and are banned or require warning labels in Europe.

7. Little Debbie Swiss Rolls: These snack cakes contain food dyes banned in Europe due to links to behavioural issues and potential risks to children’s health.

8. U.S. Pork: Much of the pork produced in the U.S. contains ractopamine, a drug that promotes leanness. Ractopamine is banned in the EU, China, and Russia due to concerns about its effects on human and animal health.

9. U.S. Beef with Growth Hormones: Hormones like zeranol, trenbolone acetate, and melengestrol acetate are commonly used in U.S. cattle production to promote growth, but the EU bans hormone-treated beef due to concerns over hormone residues and potential cancer risks.

10. Pop-Tarts: Certain varieties contain Yellow 5, Yellow 6, and Red 40, which are restricted or require warning labels in the EU.

Grover Cleveland, the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, is known for several key accomplishments during his two non-consecutive terms (1885–1889 and 1893–1897). Here are some of his most notable achievements:

1. Strengthening the Presidential Veto Power: Cleveland used his veto power extensively, especially to curb what he saw as wasteful government spending. He vetoed over 400 bills in his first term alone, a record at the time, many of which were private bills for individual benefits, like pensions, which he believed could lead to fraud.

2. Fiscal Responsibility and Opposition to Free Silver: Cleveland was committed to maintaining the gold standard and fiscal responsibility, opposing the "Free Silver" movement, which advocated for the free coinage of silver to increase the money supply. He repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, reinforcing the gold standard and restoring confidence in the U.S. financial system.

3. Civil Service Reform: Cleveland advocated for civil service reform. He extended the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, seeking to limit political patronage and promote merit-based appointments. His actions contributed to professionalising the federal workforce.

4. Interstate Commerce Act of 1887: Cleveland supported and signed the Interstate Commerce Act to regulate the railroad industry and prevent unfair practices like rate discrimination and monopolistic practices. This was the first federal law to regulate private industry in the United States, setting a precedent for future regulations.

5. Opposition to Annexing Hawaii: During his second term, Cleveland opposed the annexation of Hawaii, believing it was unjust to the native Hawaiian government. Although annexation eventually happened under President McKinley, Cleveland’s stance highlighted his respect for sovereignty and opposition to imperialist expansion.

6. Labor Relations – The Pullman Strike: Cleveland’s handling of the Pullman Strike in 1894 was controversial. He sent federal troops to break the strike, arguing that it disrupted mail delivery and interstate commerce. Although labour groups criticised his intervention, it underscored his commitment to maintaining law and order, even at the cost of popularity.

7. Economic Policies During the Panic of 1893: The Panic of 1893 was one of the worst economic crises of the 19th century, leading to a severe depression. Cleveland believed in limited government intervention and focused on maintaining the gold standard. Though his approach wasn’t popular, it marked one of the early debates in American politics on the government's role in the economy.

Cleveland’s presidency is often remembered for his integrity, commitment to principles, and willingness to make tough, sometimes unpopular decisions.

There have been instances where dogs have been "elected" to office, often in small towns or as part of ceremonial or humorous campaigns.

 1. Mayor Duke (Cormorant, Minnesota)

   - Duke, a Great Pyrenees, was "elected" as the mayor of Cormorant, Minnesota, in 2014. His popularity led him to win four consecutive terms, making him a beloved figure in the town. Duke's role was primarily symbolic, and he attended parades and community events and even wore a little mayoral sash.

 2. Mayor Max (Idyllwild, California)

   - Max, a Golden Retriever, was elected as the "first mayor" of the unincorporated town of Idyllwild, California, in 2012 through a fundraiser by the local animal rescue. Max became a popular figure, and after his passing, another Golden Retriever named Maximus Mighty-Dog Mueller II took over. "Mayor Max" continues to attend events, spread goodwill, and even has a custom truck for "official duties."

 3. Pa Kettle (Divide, Colorado)

   - Pa Kettle, a Bloodhound, was "elected" mayor of Divide, Colorado 2014. This fun election was a fundraiser for a local animal shelter, and Pa Kettle became the town’s unofficial "mayor." His duties involved spreading joy, representing the community at events, and raising awareness for animal welfare.

 4. Bosco Ramos (Sunol, California)

   - Bosco, a Black Labrador-Rottweiler mix, was elected "mayor" of Sunol, California, in 1981 and served until he died in 1994. His election was symbolic, representing the town’s sense of humour and resistance to traditional politics. Bosco became a minor celebrity in foreign media as a symbol of American individualism.

 5. Murphy the Goat (Fair Haven, Vermont)

   - While not a dog, Murphy the Goat was elected "mayor" of Fair Haven, Vermont, in 2019 in a contest to promote community engagement and raise funds for a playground. Following Murphy, Lincoln the Goat won a symbolic mayoral term, showing that many small towns enjoy electing animals for ceremonial roles.

The Electoral College was created by the framers of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, specifically designed by the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia. The idea was primarily proposed by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, who sought a compromise between having Congress select the president and allowing a direct popular vote.

The system was first used in the 1789 presidential election when George Washington was elected as the first president of the United States. At that time, the Electoral College was a novel solution that reflected the framers' desire to balance power between the states, protect the interests of smaller states, and provide a layer of deliberation in the presidential selection process.

Key Points Behind the Creation:

- Balance of Power: The system allowed both populous and smaller states a say in the election by providing each state a number of electors based on its congressional representation (House and Senate members).

- Indirect Democracy: The framers were concerned that a direct popular vote could lead to regional biases or the potential for "mob rule." They wanted an additional buffer of informed electors who would make the final choice.

The system has since evolved through amendments and legislation, but it remains a unique and sometimes controversial feature of U.S. presidential elections.

The United States is unique in using an Electoral College system exactly like its own for selecting a head of state. However, some other countries have similar indirect voting systems for electing leaders or representatives, though these systems often differ in structure and purpose.

Countries with Similar Systems:

1. India: 

   - India uses an indirect electoral system to elect its President. Members of both houses of Parliament and the legislative assemblies of states and union territories participate in the voting. However, this system is distinct from the U.S. Electoral College because it’s not based on a popular vote of the people but rather on a weighted vote of elected representatives.

2. Germany: 

   - Germany elects its Federal President through a Federal Convention, which includes members of the Bundestag (parliament) and representatives chosen by state legislatures. This convention resembles the U.S. Electoral College in some ways but is a single, one-time body convened only for the presidential election.

3. Nepal: 

   - Nepal uses an indirect electoral system for its President, where members of the Federal Parliament and members of the Provincial Assemblies vote, with weighted votes based on representation.

4. Myanmar (Burma):

   - Myanmar elects its President through an electoral system where members of Parliament elect the President from among three candidates nominated by the two houses of Parliament and the military.

Differences from the U.S. System

In all these cases, the systems are indirectly electing a head of state, but they do not involve a separate body of electors chosen specifically by popular vote in each election, nor do they follow the same state-by-state winner-take-all method used in the U.S. Instead, they rely on parliamentary or legislative representatives to cast votes.

Unique Features of the U.S. Electoral College:

The U.S. system is distinctive because:

- It involves electors chosen specifically for this purpose by voters in each state.

- Electors are pledged to candidates based on the popular vote outcome in each state.

- The winner-take-all system (used by most states) amplifies the impact of each state's result, potentially allowing a candidate to win the presidency without a national popular majority.

While indirect election is common, the specific structure and function of the U.S. Electoral College are not directly replicated in other nations.

Lever voting machines tabulated results mechanically through a system of gears, levers, and counters without the need for electricity or electronic components. Here’s how they worked:

1. Setting Up the Machine

   - Each machine had a large face with rows of levers or switches corresponding to candidates or ballot options. Voters would pull a lever next to their chosen candidate or issue.

   - The machine was "locked" initially, ensuring no one could view the counters until the polls closed.

2. Casting a Vote

   - The voter entered the booth, pulled down a lever to indicate their choice, and locked in their selection by pulling a large master lever at the end.

   - Pulling the master lever registered the vote internally and simultaneously reset the individual voting levers to prevent double voting.

   - Each time a lever was pulled, it mechanically advanced a counter associated with the candidate or ballot measure, logging a single vote on that counter.

3. Tabulation Mechanism

   - Inside the machine, each vote choice had its own mechanical counter. When a voter pulled the lever for a particular candidate or choice, it rotated a gear connected to the counter for that selection, incrementing it by one.

   - These counters, called "odometer-style" counters, displayed the cumulative total for each candidate or option and were visible to election officials when the machine was opened.

4. Reading the Results

   - At the end of the election, officials would open the back of the machine to view the final tallies.

   - The counters for each candidate or ballot measure were displayed, showing the total number of votes each received.

   - Officials would manually record these numbers, which would then be added to other precincts' totals.

5. Preventing Fraud

   - Since each lever could only advance the counter by one vote per pull, the machines had built-in protections against ballot stuffing.

   - Mechanical interlocks prevented voters from selecting multiple options in the same race, thus reducing errors.

Lever voting machines were considered reliable due to their simplicity, and because they tabulated results on internal counters, they left no paper trail. However, the lack of an audit mechanism eventually became a disadvantage, especially compared to more modern voting systems with digital records or paper backups.

Voter fraud in U.S. elections is rare and typically occurs in isolated incidents, but there have been some notable cases over the years. Here are a few examples often cited as significant:

 1. Tammany Hall Corruption (1800s - Early 1900s)

   - In New York City, Tammany Hall, a political organisation, was infamous for its voter fraud, especially in the late 19th century. The organisation controlled votes by intimidating voters, using repeat voters (individuals voting multiple times), and registering deceased individuals to pad election results. This corrupt machine influenced New York City and state elections for decades.

 2. 1950s and 1960s Chicago Elections

   - In Chicago, during Richard J. Daley’s time as mayor, there were widespread allegations of voter fraud, including vote buying and ballot stuffing. The 1960 presidential election, in which John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated Richard Nixon, is often mentioned in this context. Kennedy won Illinois by a slim margin, and some historians believe that irregularities in Chicago may have influenced the outcome.

 3. The 2002 Election in Noxubee County, Mississippi

   - In Noxubee County, Mississippi, a Democratic Party official was accused of manipulating absentee ballots to ensure that specific candidates won. The official allegedly pressured voters, particularly elderly and vulnerable individuals, to vote for specific candidates. The case led to a lawsuit under the Voting Rights Act, and the official was found guilty of civil rights violations.

 4. 2018 North Carolina's 9th Congressional District

   - In 2018, allegations of absentee ballot fraud surfaced in North Carolina's 9th Congressional District. A political operative working for Republican candidate Mark Harris was accused of tampering with absentee ballots by collecting and submitting them on behalf of voters, some of whom had not even completed their ballots. The case led to an investigation, and the election results were ultimately invalidated, prompting a new election in 2019.

 5. Philadelphia “Ring of 50” (1994)

   - In 1994, a group of 50 Philadelphia election officials and campaign workers were indicted in a scheme to falsify voter rolls, manipulate absentee ballots, and stuff ballot boxes to ensure certain candidates’ victories in state elections. The incident highlighted the potential for abuse in absentee voting when proper controls are not in place.

 6. Miami Mayoral Election (1997)

   - The 1997 Miami mayoral election was tainted by a significant voter fraud scandal involving absentee ballots. The race’s outcome was overturned when it was found that hundreds of absentee ballots were fraudulent, with ballots cast by ineligible voters, non-residents, and individuals who had not requested them. The case led to multiple arrests and a reevaluation of absentee voting protocols.

 7. Hawkins County, Tennessee (1946)

   - In Hawkins County, Tennessee, in 1946, a group of local officials was found guilty of tampering with the election process. They had manipulated ballots and engaged in other fraudulent practices to control the outcome of local elections. This case remains one of the more notorious examples of local election corruption.