A History of the Roman Ruins in Palmyra, Syria, and Their Destruction

Ancient Origins of Palmyra

Palmyra, located in modern-day Syria, was one of the most important cities of the ancient world. The "Pearl of the Desert" was a crucial trading hub linking the Roman Empire to Persia, India, and China along the Silk Road. The city dates back to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, but it rose to prominence during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Palmyra became part of the Roman Empire in 64 BCE when Rome annexed Syria. By the 1st century CE, it had grown into a wealthy and cosmopolitan city, thanks to its role as a trade center between the East and the Mediterranean.The Roman Golden Age (1st–3rd Century CE)

During the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, Palmyra flourished under Roman rule. The city blended Roman, Persian, and local influences, creating a unique cultural and architectural style. Some of its most famous structures from this period include:

1. The Temple of Bel (32 CE) was one of the most important religious buildings in the Roman world. It was dedicated to the Mesopotamian god Bel.

2. The Great Colonnade – A nearly 1.2 km (0.75 miles) long monumental street lined with towering Corinthian columns.

3. The Roman Theater – A well-preserved semi-circular structure used for performances and public events.

4. The Tetrapylon – A grand monument marking the intersection of Palmyra’s main roads.

5. Funerary Towers and Tombs – Elaborate sandstone burial monuments showcasing the city's prosperity.

In the 3rd century CE, Queen Zenobia of Palmyra briefly led a rebellion against Rome, establishing the Palmyrene Empire (c. 270–272 CE). However, her rule was short-lived, as Roman Emperor Aurelian crushed the rebellion in 272 CE, bringing Palmyra back under Roman control.

Decline and Abandonment

Palmyra's importance declined after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of Islamic rule in the 7th century CE. It was largely abandoned by the medieval period, though it remained a site of historical interest.

By the 19th and 20th centuries, archaeologists uncovered and restored much of Palmyra’s ruins, making it one of the most famous UNESCO World Heritage sites.

Destruction by ISIS (2015–2017)

In 2015, during the Syrian Civil War, the Islamic State (ISIS) captured Palmyra and deliberately destroyed many of its ancient monuments, considering them idolatrous.

Among the worst acts of destruction:

• The Temple of Bel was dynamited in August 2015.

• The Temple of Baalshamin was blown up in August 2015.

• The Roman Theater – Partially destroyed and used for executions.

• The Tetrapylon – Heavily damaged.

• Several Tower Tombs were reduced to rubble.

ISIS also executed Khaled al-Asaad, an 82-year-old Syrian archaeologist who had overseen Palmyra's preservation for decades.

After the First World War, Syria and Lebanon were ruled by France under a League of Nations mandate, following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. The governance structure, known as the French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, officially began in 1923 and lasted until the mid-1940s. Here’s an overview of how France administered these territories:

Background:

1. Post-Ottoman Arrangement:

   • After World War I, the Ottoman Empire’s Middle Eastern territories were divided among the victors under the Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916). This agreement anticipated French control of Syria and Lebanon.

   • The League of Nations granted France the formal mandate for these territories in 1923, based on its claim to historical and cultural ties in the region and its military presence after the war.

1. Initial Occupation:

1. • French military forces entered the region in 1920, defeating local resistance at the Battle of Maysalun and taking control of Damascus, the political and cultural heart of Syria.

Governance Structure:

1. Division into States:

   • France divided the Syrian mandate into several states along sectarian and regional lines to weaken nationalist unity:

     • State of Damascus

     • State of Aleppo

     • Alawite State (later Latakia)

     • Jabal Druze

     • Greater Lebanon (separated as a distinct entity, eventually becoming modern Lebanon)

   • This divide-and-rule strategy exploited ethnic and religious divisions to maintain control.

1. Direct French Rule:

1. • France retained significant administrative authority over the region, appointing governors and officials and controlling foreign policy, security, and economic decisions.

1. Constitutional Development:

1. • France introduced constitutions in Syria and Lebanon but maintained veto power over significant political decisions. Syrian efforts to gain independence were frequently rebuffed.

Resistance and Rebellion:

1. Syrian Nationalism:

   • Syrian nationalists resisted French rule, demanding independence and unification of the fragmented states.

   • The Great Syrian Revolt (1925–1927) was a large-scale uprising led by Druze leaders and Syrian nationalists, which France suppressed brutally using heavy military force.

1. Lebanese Response:

1. • In Lebanon, the French fostered closer ties with the Christian Maronite community, creating tensions between Christian and Muslim populations. This favoritism fueled long-term sectarian divides.

French Policies:

1. Economic Exploitation:

   • France developed infrastructure but largely directed resources to benefit French commercial interests. Agriculture, trade, and industries like silk production were integrated into the French economy.

1. Cultural Influence:

1. • France sought to promote French culture, language, and education, particularly in urban areas, creating a Francophone elite class.

1. Military Presence:

1. • French troops were stationed throughout Syria and Lebanon to enforce order, quell uprisings, and secure French interests.

Toward Independence:

1. World War II Impact:

   • During World War II, the Vichy French government initially controlled the region, but Free French forces, backed by Britain, took over in 1941.

   • Amid growing nationalist pressure and international support for independence, France agreed to gradually transfer power.

1. Full Independence:

1. • Lebanon gained independence in 1943, followed by Syria in 1946, after prolonged negotiations and mounting resistance to continued French influence.

Legacy:

• The French Mandate left a mixed legacy:

  • Administrative Fragmentation: The division of territories by France sowed divisions that affected regional unity.

  • Sectarianism: French policies deepened sectarian divides, particularly in Lebanon, influencing future conflicts.

  • Nationalism: Harsh rule fueled strong nationalist movements, which ultimately led to independence.

Eli Cohen (1924–1965) was an Israeli spy who had a daring undercover operation in Syria during the 1960s. His remarkable ability to infiltrate Syrian high society and provide crucial intelligence to Israel remains a legendary tale of espionage.
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Early Life and Recruitment:

Eli Cohen was born to Jewish parents of Syrian descent in Alexandria, Egypt.

As a young man, he was deeply influenced by Zionist ideals and supported the creation of the state of Israel.

After being expelled from Egypt during the anti-Jewish sentiment following the Suez Crisis in 1956, Cohen moved to Israel, where he was recruited by Mossad, Israel's intelligence agency, in 1960.

His fluency in Arabic, French, and Hebrew, as well as his ability to blend in seamlessly, made him an ideal candidate for covert operations.

Undercover Identity in Syria:

Cohen was given the identity of "Kamel Amin Thaabet," a wealthy Syrian businessman returning to his homeland after living in Argentina. In 1961, he infiltrated Syrian society, quickly gaining the trust of military and political elites.

His charm, intelligence, and generosity allowed him to attend high-level gatherings, where he gathered critical information about Syria's military and political strategies.

Espionage Achievements:

Cohen's intelligence contributions were monumental. He provided detailed reports on Syrian fortifications in the Golan Heights, which proved invaluable during the Six-Day War in 1967.

One famous anecdote describes how Cohen suggested planting eucalyptus trees near Syrian military installations to provide shade for soldiers—a suggestion that allowed Israeli forces to identify and target these locations during the war.

Discovery and Capture:

In 1965, Syrian counterintelligence, with assistance from Soviet experts, detected unusual radio transmissions from Cohen's Damascus apartment. After his capture, Cohen was interrogated, tried in a secretive military court, and sentenced to death. Despite international appeals for clemency, including from Pope Paul VI and French President Charles de Gaulle, Syria executed him by public hanging on May 18, 1965.

Legacy:

Eli Cohen's bravery and sacrifice are deeply honored in Israel. He is remembered as a national hero, and his intelligence work is credited with saving countless lives.

His remains have not been returned to Israel, despite ongoing efforts by Israeli authorities.

His story has been the subject of books, films, and the 2019 Netflix series The Spy, starring Sacha Baron Cohen, which dramatized his life and work.

Early History and Origins

Emergence in the 9th Century:

The Alawite sect emerged around the 9th century in what is now modern-day Iraq and Syria.

The sect's name, Nusayris, is derived from Muhammad ibn Nusayr, a disciple of the 10th Shia Imam, Ali al-Hadi (828–868). He is believed to have played a pivotal role in shaping Alawite theology.

Theological Foundations:

Alawites are a branch of Shia Islam, venerating Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. However, their beliefs diverged significantly, emphasizing esotericism, mysticism, and elements from other religious traditions.

Their theology includes beliefs in divine emanations, reincarnation, and the veneration of a divine triad: Ali, Muhammad, and Salman the Persian.

Spread to Syria:

The sect migrated from Iraq to the mountainous regions of western Syria to escape persecution by Sunni Muslim rulers during the Abbasid Caliphate.

Medieval History

Persecution and Isolation:

Under the Abbasids, and later the Ottoman Empire, Alawites were often viewed as heretics by Sunni Muslim authorities. This led to widespread discrimination and marginalization.

To protect themselves, Alawites retreated to the rugged mountains of the Latakia region in modern-day Syria, where they lived in isolated communities.

Religious Marginalization:

Alawite beliefs, which incorporate elements of pre-Islamic religions, Christianity, and Gnosticism, further distanced them from mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam.

This isolation reinforced their identity as a secretive and tightly-knit community.

Ottoman Era (1516–1918)

Subjugation under Ottoman Rule:

During the Ottoman Empire, Alawites were marginalized as second-class citizens and forced into servitude by Sunni landlords in the coastal regions.

The Ottomans, like their predecessors, regarded Alawites as heretics and made little effort to integrate them into the broader Islamic society.

French Mandate Period (1920–1946)

Empowerment by the French:

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the French gained control of Syria under the League of Nations Mandate.

The French used a divide-and-rule strategy, favoring minority groups, including Alawites, to weaken Sunni Arab nationalism.

Alawites were heavily recruited into the military and administrative roles, creating new opportunities for upward mobility.

Creation of Alawite State:

In 1922, the French established the State of the Alawites as part of their mandate. While it was later integrated into modern Syria, this period marked the first time Alawites gained political significance.

Rise to Power in Modern Syria

Post-Independence Marginalization (1946–1963):

After Syria gained independence in 1946, Sunni elites dominated the political and economic spheres, leaving Alawites marginalized once again.

However, the military, which had grown in importance during the French Mandate, remained a pathway for Alawite advancement.

Ba'athist Coup and Alawite Ascendancy (1963–1970):

The Ba'ath Party, a secular Arab nationalist movement, seized power in Syria in 1963. Alawite officers gained significant influence within the party and the military.

In 1970, Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite Air Force officer, orchestrated a coup, becoming Syria’s president and consolidating Alawite dominance.

Under Hafez al-Assad and Bashar al-Assad

Hafez al-Assad (1971–2000):

Hafez al-Assad solidified Alawite control over Syria's political, military, and intelligence institutions.

His regime emphasized secularism and Arab nationalism to unify the country, while ensuring the Alawite community retained significant power.

Bashar al-Assad (2000–present):

Bashar al-Assad succeeded his father in 2000. His regime faced growing opposition, culminating in the Syrian Civil War (2011–present).

During the war, the Assad regime has relied heavily on the Alawite community for support, deepening sectarian divides.

Modern Context

Alawite Role in the Syrian Civil War:

The civil war has exacerbated sectarian tensions between Alawites, who largely back the Assad regime, and the Sunni Muslim majority.

Alawites have faced existential threats from extremist groups that view them as heretics, further binding them to the Assad regime for survival.

Demographics and Influence:

Alawites make up about 10–15% of Syria’s population but hold disproportionate political and military power.

The community's reliance on the Assad regime has made them vulnerable to backlash in a post-Assad future.

In Israel, Tel Aviv is known as one of the most dog-friendly cities in the world. With an estimated one dog for every 11 residents, this has earned Tel Aviv a reputation for having one of the highest rates of dog ownership globally, especially relative to population size.

The Story of "Hachiko" – The Israeli Version

  - One of the most touching stories in Israel is often compared to the story of Japan’s famous dog, Hachiko. In this case, a loyal Israeli dog would wait daily for his owner, a Holocaust survivor, to return to the bus station after work. Tragically, one day, the owner passed away, but the dog continued to wait for him at the station for years. Locals began caring for the dog, feeding and keeping him company. The dog's unwavering loyalty struck a deep chord with the community, making the story widely known in Israel.

  - The Oketz Unit, Israel’s elite canine special forces, is another famous source of dog stories. The dogs in this unit are trained for military missions, including tracking, detecting explosives, and search and rescue operations. Many of these dogs are considered national heroes for their bravery in saving lives during dangerous missions. For example, there are stories of dogs in the Oketz Unit who detected bombs during the Second Lebanon War and in various operations in Gaza, preventing potential casualties. When one of these dogs dies in action, they are often honoured as fallen soldiers.

The Story of Lu-Lu the Dog and Gilad Shalit

   - When Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit was held captive by Hamas (from 2006 to 2011), his family’s dog, Lu-Lu, became a symbol of loyalty and hope. The black Labrador remained by the Shalit family’s side, comforting them during their long ordeal. Upon Gilad Shalit's release, Gilad and Lu-Lu reunited, bolstering the family's emotional resilience and the power of a dog’s companionship.

The Hero Dog of the Carmel Fire

   - During the 2010 Carmel Forest Fire, one of the worst natural disasters in Israeli history, a heroic dog named Shira became known for her bravery. Shira, a mixed-breed dog, guided her owner and several others through thick smoke and out of danger as the fire approached their area. Her keen instincts and loyalty saved lives, and she was later honoured for her actions during the crisis.

Dogs Rescued During Operation Protective Edge

   - During the 2014 Gaza War, also known as Operation Protective Edge, there were several stories of soldiers being saved by military dogs from the Oketz Unit. In one instance, a dog named Levi detected a tunnel that Hamas fighters were using to stage an ambush on Israeli forces. Levi's discovery helped avert a potentially deadly surprise attack, making him a hero in the eyes of the soldiers.

The Story of "Nili"

   - In the early days of Israeli independence, a dog named Nili became famous for her work with the Haganah. This Jewish paramilitary organisation later became part of the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF). Nili was trained to deliver messages across dangerous terrain and often accompanied Jewish fighters during the tumultuous period before and after the founding of Israel. Her story is part of the broader history of how animals played roles in Israel's fight for survival.

The Trojan Horse concept—something harmful disguised as beneficial or harmless—has appeared throughout history, literature, and even modern cybersecurity. Here are some notable Trojan Horse scenarios and stories, ranging from ancient tales to contemporary strategies:

 The Original Trojan Horse (Ancient Greek Mythology)

   - Story: The term "Trojan Horse" originates from the Greek myth of the Trojan War, famously recounted in Homer’s "The Iliad" and later in Virgil's "The Aeneid". The Greeks, unable to breach the walls of Troy after a decade of war, devised a plan to deceive the Trojans. They built a giant wooden horse, hiding soldiers inside, and pretended to sail away. Believing the horse to be a peace offering, the Trojans brought it into the city. Greek soldiers emerged from the horse at night and opened the gates for the returning Greek army, but the city was sacked.

   - Outcome: This story remains one of the most famous examples of deception in history and gave rise to the term "Trojan Horse" for any trick that causes an opponent to invite a foe into a secure place.

 The Wooden Horse Escape (World War II)

   - Scenario: A real-life parallel to the mythical Trojan Horse occurred during World War II when British POWs at Stalag Luft III, a German POW camp, built a vaulting horse as part of an escape plan.

   - Trojan Horse Strategy: Under the guise of using the horse for exercise, the prisoners dug a tunnel beneath it, hiding their digging equipment and dirt inside. Every day, they would move the horse to the dig site, and while some men exercised above, others dug beneath. The horse was then moved back into the camp at the end of the day.

   - Outcome: Three prisoners successfully escaped using this method. This daring escape became famous and was the subject of the book and film "The Wooden Horse".

 The Battle of Carthage (146 BC)

   - Scenario: During the Third Punic War, the Roman Republic laid siege to Carthage. After breaching the city walls, the Romans faced fierce resistance from the Carthaginians, who had built barricades in the streets. To break the final resistance, the Romans used deception.

   - Trojan Horse Strategy: Roman soldiers pretended to retreat, luring the Carthaginians out of their fortified positions. When the defenders pursued, the Romans launched a surprise counterattack, capturing critical parts of the city.

   - Outcome: The city of Carthage was ultimately destroyed, marking the end of the Punic Wars. This feigned retreat tactic is a classic military Trojan Horse strategy.

The Siege of Alesia (52 BC)

   - Scenario: During Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul, the Gallic leader Vercingetorix retreated to the fortified city of Alesia, where Caesar laid siege.

   - Trojan Horse Strategy: While Caesar built fortifications around the city, he also set traps and built fake retreats to lure Gallic reinforcements into ambushes. He employed deception to divide and weaken the Gallic forces while maintaining a double-layer siege.

   - Outcome: The siege was successful, and Caesar’s tactics, including deceptive strategies, led to the final defeat of the Gallic forces, cementing Roman control over Gaul.