Walled cities in the medieval age frequently enacted tolls and taxes on people and goods entering and leaving the city. These measures were vital for the city's economy, defense, and governance. Below are some notable examples of medieval walled cities that imposed such charges:

London (England)Tolls and Taxes:

Medieval London levied tolls on merchants and traders bringing goods into the city.

Taxes were often collected at gates such as Ludgate and Aldgate.

The city’s walls, originally built by the Romans and expanded in the Middle Ages, controlled entry points and facilitated the collection of these fees.

Revenue funded city maintenance, including the repair of walls, roads, and public services.

Paris (France)

Tolls and Taxes:

Paris imposed octroi (entry taxes) on goods such as wine, food, and raw materials entering the city.

Taxes were collected at the city's fortified gates, including Porte Saint-Denis and Porte Saint-Martin.

The walls, such as the Wall of Philippe Auguste, were essential for controlling trade and ensuring efficient tax collection.

Octroi revenues supported city infrastructure, defense, and governance.

Lübeck (Germany)

Tolls and Taxes:

A leading city in the Hanseatic League, Lübeck levied tolls on ships and goods entering its ports.

Entry taxes were also collected at the city gates for merchants using land routes.

Its prominent trade position made tolls a primary source of income for the city.

Funds were used to maintain fortifications, promote trade, and ensure the city’s autonomy within the Hanseatic League.

Bruges (Belgium)

Tolls and Taxes:

Bruges collected tolls at its gates and waterways, taxing goods brought in by merchants.

Specific goods like textiles and spices faced additional fees.

The city’s canals and gates made it a key trading hub during the Middle Ages.

Revenues were invested in the city’s infrastructure, including maintaining the canals and fortifications.

Carcassonne (France)

Tolls and Taxes:

As a fortified city, Carcassonne taxed traders and travelers entering through its gates.

Goods like salt and cloth were particularly targeted for taxation.

The double-walled fortifications of Carcassonne enabled tight control over trade and taxation.

Revenues supported the upkeep of the city’s walls and its military garrison.

Florence (Italy)

Tolls and Taxes:

Florence imposed tolls on goods entering its walls, especially during fairs and market days.

Wool and textiles, key industries in Florence, were heavily taxed.

The city’s gates, including the Porta Romana, controlled entry and ensured proper tax collection.

The revenues helped finance the city’s artistic and architectural projects, as well as its defense.

Kraków (Poland)

Tolls and Taxes:

Entry fees were charged on goods entering the city through gates like St. Florian's Gate.

Specific taxes applied to salt, a vital resource in medieval Poland.

Kraków’s position on major trade routes made it a vital economic center.

Revenue funded city defenses and the maintenance of public buildings, including Wawel Castle.

Avignon (France)Tolls and Taxes:

Entry fees were collected at the city’s fortified gates during the period of the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377).

Taxes applied to pilgrims, traders, and goods entering the city.

The city’s religious importance brought significant wealth through pilgrimage-related trade.

Revenues supported papal projects, city defenses, and public works.

Ghent (Belgium)

Tolls and Taxes:

Ghent imposed taxes on goods such as grain and textiles entering its gates.

River tolls were also levied on ships using its waterways.

A key city in the medieval textile trade, Ghent depended on tolls for economic prosperity.

Revenues funded civic projects, including the maintenance of walls and public spaces.

Tallinn (Estonia)Tolls and Taxes:

As a member of the Hanseatic League, Tallinn taxed goods entering its harbor and gates.

Entry fees applied to traders bringing goods like timber, fish, and grain.

The city’s fortifications, such as the Great Coastal Gate, controlled trade routes and taxation.

 Revenues bolstered the city’s defense and trade prominence.

The five most driven routes in the United States are some of the busiest highways that connect major metropolitan areas, serve as key transportation corridors, and facilitate significant volumes of commercial and commuter traffic. These routes are integral to the U.S. transportation network.

I-95 (East Coast Corridor)

Runs from Miami, Florida, to Houlton, Maine, spanning approximately 1,920 miles.

Passes through major cities such as New York City, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and Boston.

Serves as the primary north-south route along the densely populated Eastern Seaboard.
I-95, Miami, FL
In Miami, I-95 has approximately 339,500 daily vehicles.
I-75, Atlanta, GA
In Atlanta, I-75 sees around 419,516 vehicles daily.

I-10 (Southern Transcontinental)

It stretches from Santa Monica, California, to Jacksonville, Florida, covering 2,460 miles.

Links major cities such as Los Angeles, Phoenix, Houston, and New Orleans.

A vital east-west corridor connecting the southern United States.

Supports significant freight traffic, particularly in Texas and Louisiana.
I-10, Houston, TX
Certain sections of I-10 in Houston report figures exceeding 313,000 daily vehicles.

I-5 (West Coast Corridor)

Runs from San Diego, California, to Blaine, Washington, near the Canadian border, spanning about 1,381 miles.

Passes through cities like Los Angeles, Sacramento, Portland, and Seattle.

Key north-south route for the West Coast, serving dense urban areas and supporting international trade with Canada and Mexico.
I-5, Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana, CA
This segment of Interstate 5 experiences approximately 504,000 vehicles.

I-405, Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana, CA
Interstate 405 has about 383,500 vehicles, contributing to the heavy congestion in the Los Angeles area.

I-80 (Northern Transcontinental)

Extends from San Francisco, California, to Teaneck, New Jersey, covering approximately 2,900 miles.

Crosses major cities like Sacramento, Salt Lake City, Chicago, and Cleveland.

A major east-west corridor connecting the Midwest and the West Coast.

I-35 (Central Corridor)

Stretches from Laredo, Texas, at the U.S.-Mexico border to Duluth, Minnesota, covering 1,568 miles.

Passes through cities like San Antonio, Austin, Dallas, Kansas City, and Minneapolis.

A critical north-south corridor for freight and commuter traffic in the central U.S.

Supports significant trade between Mexico and the United States under the USMCA (formerly NAFTA).

The Texas Triangle (San Antonio, Austin, and Dallas) is one of the busiest regions.

The first Christmas tree lighting at Rockefeller Center took place in December 1931 during the construction of the complex. It wasn’t an official event as we know it today but rather a spontaneous act by construction workers.

• The tree was a 20-foot balsam fir decorated with handmade garlands and strings of cranberries, tin cans, and even paper. It was a modest gesture of holiday spirit during the depths of the Great Depression.

The first official tree lighting ceremony, complete with organized festivities, occurred in December 1933. That year, the event featured a 50-foot tree and marked the beginning of an annual holiday tradition.

Today, the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree Lighting is a globally recognized event, drawing crowds and television audiences to celebrate the season.

Rockefeller Center is an iconic example of innovative urban design and construction, blending Art Deco aesthetics with practical functionality. Daniel Okrent's book, Great Fortune: The Epic of Rockefeller Center, offers a detailed exploration of its unique characteristics, shedding light on its ambitious vision and execution. Here are some standout features:

1. Art Deco Architecture

• The design of Rockefeller Center epitomizes the sleek, geometric elegance of the Art Deco movement. Okrent highlights the creative use of vertical lines, setbacks, and ornamentation to create a sense of upward movement and grandeur. The use of limestone cladding and stainless steel accents further emphasizes the clean, modern aesthetic.

2. Integrated Urban Complex

• Rockefeller Center was one of the first developments to integrate multiple commercial, cultural, and recreational functions into a cohesive urban complex. As Okrent describes, it features interconnected buildings designed around a central plaza, creating a "city within a city" that supports both pedestrian and vehicular flow.

3. Innovative Construction Techniques

• Okrent details the extraordinary engineering feats required to build Rockefeller Center during the Great Depression. Techniques such as precision steel frame construction and the use of modular limestone panels allowed for rapid and efficient building while ensuring structural integrity.

4. Public Art and Design Integration

• The complex incorporates significant public art, such as sculptures, frescoes, and bas-reliefs, reflecting progress, culture, and industry themes. Notable works include Paul Manship's Prometheus statue and Diego Rivera's (later replaced) murals, which Okrent describes as part of a broader cultural vision by John D. Rockefeller Jr. to merge art and commerce.

5. Underground Concourse and Transportation Integration

• A key innovation was the inclusion of an underground concourse, which connected the buildings and provided easy access to public transit. Okrent highlights this as an early example of designing urban spaces with accessibility and functionality in mind.

6. Seasonal Features and Iconic Attractions

• The Rockefeller Plaza, home to the annual Christmas Tree Lighting and the ice-skating rink, was conceived as a dynamic, multi-use public space. Okrent notes that these features were not originally part of the plan but evolved as ways to make the space more inviting and profitable.

Okrent’s book emphasizes that Rockefeller Center is an architectural masterpiece and a symbol of resilience, completed during one of America's most challenging economic periods. Its design and construction remain a benchmark for urban planning and architectural ingenuity.

United States and southern Ontario, Canada, were under winter weather warnings as snow squalls moved through Thursday morning ahead Arctic temperatures blasting through the region with blustery and potentially damaging wind gusts.

After a week of bitterly cold temperatures and days of lake-effect snow, another shot of cold air swept through the Northeast, sending temperatures in parts of the Midwest plunging into the teens, 10 to 20 degrees below normal. Wind gusts up to 80 miles per hour are expected Thursday afternoon into the evening, bringing blizzard conditions to areas with lake-effect snow and making travel treacherous.

Forecasters with the National Weather Service in New York City said Thursday night into Friday would be the coldest night and early morning of the season, especially after accounting for wind chill.

In the dim light of dawn, the city streets glistened with rain, the amber glow of streetlamps flickering in the mist.

At the corner of 54th Street, outside the imposing facade of the New York Hilton, a beige miniature poodle stood resolutely, raincoat draped over its petite frame, fedora tilted just enough to shield its sharp eyes from the drizzle.

The badge pinned to its coat gleamed faintly—a symbol of justice. Detective Flossi had pieced together the mystery in record time. A string of cryptic clues led to this moment: the final confrontation.

The poodle's sharp bark shattered the silence as a shadowy figure darted from an alleyway, clutching a briefcase stuffed with ill-gotten gains. 

With an agility that belied her small stature, Flossi pursued, her tiny paws splashing through puddles.

A calculated leap and the poodle had the perpetrator pinned against a lamppost.

Police officials emerged from the shadows, cuffs at the ready, as Flossi growled a warning that even the toughest criminal wouldn’t dare ignore.

As the officers led the suspect away, Flossi tilted her head skyward, the first rays of sunlight breaking through the gloom. Another case closed—justice served, poodle style.

Fighting wildfires requires specialised chemicals and equipment to contain and extinguish fires, protect firefighters, and manage the challenging conditions. Here are some of the critical tools and chemicals:

 Chemicals

1. Fire Retardants: Chemicals like Phos-Chek are dropped from planes and helicopters to slow the fire's spread. They create a fire-resistant barrier by coating vegetation, which reduces flammability and limits the fire’s fuel source.

2. Water Enhancers: Gels like FireIce or Thermo-Gel can be mixed with water to increase their ability to cling to surfaces. This creates a protective layer on structures or vegetation that resists ignition.

3. Foams: Firefighting foams, such as Class A Foam, are added to water and work by increasing its surface tension, helping it penetrate burning materials more effectively. They also cool the fire and limit the oxygen supply to the flames.

4. Suppressants: Short-term suppressants, such as wetting agents and Class A foams, help reduce the intensity of flames, giving firefighters more time to control the fire's spread.

 Equipment

1. Fire Engines: Specially designed engines for wildfire management come equipped with off-road capabilities and high-clearance suspension. They have pumps, hoses, tanks carrying water and other firefighting agents.

2. Helicopters and Air Tankers: Helicopters are used for water drops or deploying fire retardants, while larger air tankers can carry thousands of gallons of retardant or water for aerial drops over large areas.

3. Hand Tools: Tools like Pulaskis, which combine an ax and a hoe, and McLeods, a rake-hoe hybrid, are used to dig fire lines, removing vegetation down to the bare soil, to prevent the fire from spreading.

4. Chainsaws and Bulldozers: These are used to cut down trees, clear vegetation, and create firebreaks. Bulldozers are especially helpful in creating broad fire lines to block the fire’s path.

5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Wildland firefighters wear specialised PPE, including flame-resistant clothing, helmets, goggles, and gloves, and carry fire shelters for emergency protection.

6. Fire Shelters: These emergency devices, made from layers of aluminium foil and silica, can be deployed in extreme situations to reflect heat and create an insulating layer around firefighters.

7. Drones: Equipped with thermal imaging cameras, drones are increasingly used to survey wildfires, track their progress, and locate hotspots, especially in rugged or remote areas with limited visibility.

FireIce is produced by GelTech Solutions, an innovative technology company specialising in eco-friendly fire prevention and suppression products. 

Thermo-Gel is manufactured by Thermo Technologies, LLC, a company dedicated to developing cost-effective products to combat fire-related losses.  

Several manufacturers produce Class A foam concentrates, essential in combating fires involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, paper, and vegetation. Notable producers include:

- Perimeter Solutions: Offers a range of Class A foam concentrates under the PHOS-CHEK® brand, designed to enhance water's effectiveness in firefighting. 

- Chemguard: Provides Class A foam concentrates that combine foaming and wetting agents, suitable for various firefighting applications. 

- National Foam: Produces environmentally responsible Class A foam concentrates like KnockDown® and Responder®, both designed for effective fire suppression. 

- ANSUL: Offers Class A foam agents formulated to reduce water's surface tension, providing superior wetting and penetrating characteristics for firefighting. 

- Fomtec: Develops and distributes firefighting foams, including Class A foam concentrates, suitable for various fire protection needs. 

These manufacturers provide various Class A foam products tailored to different firefighting scenarios, effectively suppressing fires involving common combustible materials.

Among the companies mentioned, Perimeter Solutions is publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol PRM. 

GelTech Solutions, the manufacturer of FireIce, is also publicly traded on the OTCQB Exchange under the ticker symbol GLTC. 

The other companies—Chemguard, National Foam, ANSUL, and Fomtec—are privately held and not listed on public stock exchanges.

Several manufacturers produce Pulaski and McLeod tools, which are essential in firefighting and land management. Notable producers include:

Pulaski Tools:

- Council Tool: A renowned American manufacturer offering high-quality Pulaski axes. 

- Warwood Tool: Produces Pulaski axes adhering to traditional specifications and is suitable for chopping and digging tasks. 

- Barebones Living: Offers Pulaski axes designed for functionality and aesthetic appeal. 

McLeod Tools:

- Council Tool: Manufactures McLeod tools with high-carbon steel blades and durable handles, meeting U.S. Forest Service specifications. 

- Nupla: Provides McLeod fire tools featuring flame-resistant handles and robust construction. 

- Flamefighter: Offers McLeod tools with fiberglass handles, designed for wildland firefighting applications. 

Council Tool and Nupla are privately held and not publicly traded among the mentioned companies. Warwood Tool, Barebones Living, and Flamefighter are privately owned and not listed on public stock exchanges. Therefore, none of these companies are publicly traded. 

The states with the largest populations of Puerto Rican voters are primarily in the Northeast and Florida, due to historical migration patterns and recent relocations from Puerto Rico. Here’s a look at the top states:

 1. Florida

   - Florida has one of the largest Puerto Rican populations, especially in areas like Orlando, Tampa, and Miami. The influx of Puerto Ricans has increased significantly since Hurricane Maria in 2017, with many moving to central Florida. Puerto Rican voters are an influential demographic here due to their size and strong civic engagement.

 2. New York

   - New York has a long-standing Puerto Rican community, particularly in New York City and surrounding areas. Historically, New York had the largest Puerto Rican population on the mainland, and Puerto Rican voters remain an important constituency in the state.

 3. New Jersey

   - New Jersey, particularly in cities like Newark, Paterson, and Jersey City, has a sizable Puerto Rican community. Puerto Rican voters play a significant role in local and state elections here due to their concentrated presence.

 4. Pennsylvania

   - Pennsylvania, especially in cities like Philadelphia and Allentown, has a growing Puerto Rican population. Puerto Rican voters are influential in local elections, particularly in areas with concentrated Puerto Rican communities.

 5. Massachusetts

   - Massachusetts, notably in cities like Springfield, Worcester, and Boston, has a significant Puerto Rican population. Puerto Rican voters are particularly influential in areas with a high concentration of Latino voters.

These states’ Puerto Rican communities often participate actively in elections, with Florida and Pennsylvania being particularly crucial battlegrounds in national elections due to their swing-state status.

Puerto Rican voters in Florida could influence the outcome of the U.S. presidential election. Florida is a crucial swing state with a large number of electoral votes, making it highly impactful in close national elections. Puerto Ricans represent a significant portion of Florida's Latino vote, especially in the Orlando and central Florida areas.

Here are key factors that make Puerto Rican voters influential in Florida:

 1. Growing Population

   - Puerto Rican migration to Florida, particularly after Hurricane Maria in 2017, has significantly increased the number of eligible Puerto Rican voters in the state. This has increased the state's overall Latino voter base and strengthened Puerto Rican communities' presence in key areas.

 2. Swing-State Status

   - Florida’s status as a swing state makes every vote critical in close races. With a diverse population, slight shifts among voting groups can tip the state toward one candidate. Puerto Ricans, often politically active, can be a decisive group in tight elections.

 3. Distinct Voting Patterns

   - Puerto Rican voters in Florida tend to lean Democratic overall, though this can vary based on specific candidates and issues. Compared to other Latino groups in Florida, Puerto Ricans are less reliably aligned with the Republican Party, adding an unpredictable and potentially decisive element in Florida's elections.

 4. High Engagement and Mobilization Efforts

   - Both parties heavily campaigned in Puerto Rican communities in Florida due to their potential impact. Community organisations also work to mobilise Puerto Rican voters, especially on issues of interest like healthcare, economic recovery, and policies impacting Puerto Rico directly.

In a close election, the Puerto Rican vote in Florida can be influential enough to tip the state's electoral votes, which in turn can affect the overall outcome of the presidential race.

The German American Bund rally held at Madison Square Garden on February 20, 1939, drew 22,000 participants and featured a giant portrait of George Washington flanked by swastikas.

 The event was met with fierce protests by anti-Nazi demonstrators, and it ultimately backfired, drawing widespread condemnation of the Bund's activities. The event marked the height of the organisation's influence but also led to its rapid downfall.

The Bund's leader, Fritz Julius Kuhn, gave a provocative speech attacking President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Jewish influence, but the rally attracted widespread public condemnation.

Kuhn was soon after arrested for embezzling funds from the organisation, convicted of larceny and forgery, and sentenced to prison.

Following his release after World War II, Kuhn was deported to Germany, where he lived quietly until he died in 1951.

The German American Bund sought to create a “Nazi America” by promoting a combination of American patriotism and Nazi ideology. Its members, primarily German-Americans, held rallies, published propaganda, and operated youth camps such as Camp Siegfried in New York and Camp Nordland in New Jersey.

The Bund's roots can be traced to earlier Nazi-supporting groups.

Friends of New Germany (FoNG) was founded in 1933 with the help of the German government. The goal was to unite various Nazi groups in the U.S. and spread Nazi propaganda. It was formed by merging two smaller groups: Gau-USA and the Free Society of Teutonia.

   However, by the mid-1930s, the Nazi government in Germany distanced itself from the FoNG, fearing its activities were damaging relations with the U.S. In December 1935, German officials ordered all German nationals to leave the group, and its leadership was recalled to Germany.

After the dissolution of FoNG, the German American Bund was established in 1936 under Fritz Julius Kuhn, a naturalised U.S. citizen of German descent and a World War I veteran. 

 Key Individuals:

1. Fritz Julius Kuhn (Bundesführer):

   Role: Kuhn was the leader of the German American Bund and its most visible figure. A charismatic speaker, Kuhn sought to rally support for Nazi ideals within the German-American community. He was heavily involved in organising rallies, including the infamous 1939 Madison Square Garden rally, which featured Nazi symbols alongside American flags.

   Downfall: In late 1939, Kuhn was arrested and convicted of embezzling $14,000 from the Bund. He was sentenced to two and a half to five years in prison for larceny and forgery.

2. Gerhard Wilhelm Kunze:

   Successor to Kuhn: Gerhard Kunze became the Bund’s leader after Kuhn's arrest. Kunze was a spy for German military intelligence, and his leadership saw the Bund increasingly scrutinised by U.S. authorities.

Capture: Kunze fled the U.S. to Mexico after the U.S. entered World War II but was captured and extradited to the U.S., where he was sentenced to 15 years in prison for espionage【254†source】.

3. August Klapprott:

   - Bund Leader in New Jersey: Klapprott was one of the regional leaders of the Bund. After the U.S. entered the war, Klapprott was arrested and interned as a dangerous enemy alien under the authority of the Alien Enemies Act.

4. Rudolf Markmann:

   - Camp Siegfried Leader: Markmann was a regional leader who oversaw Camp Siegfried, a Nazi-style youth camp on Long Island, New York. The camp was part of the Bund's efforts to indoctrinate young German Americans into Nazi ideology. Markmann was one of several Bund leaders arrested after the group was disbanded.

Many rank-and-file members were left alone after the Bund disbanded.