The Ordre National du Mérite (National Order of Merit) is a distinguished French honour established by President Charles de Gaulle on December 3, 1963. It recognises individuals with distinguished merits in public service, military endeavours, or private sector activities.

Structure of the Order: The order is organized into five levels:

1. Chevalier (Knight)

2. Officier (Officer)

3. Commandeur (Commander)

4. Grand Officier (Grand Officer)

5. Grand-Croix (Grand Cross)

These distinctions are awarded to French citizens and foreign nationals who have significantly contributed to France or its interests.

Notable Recipients: Over the years, the Ordre National du Mérite has been conferred upon numerous prominent individuals, including:

• James Gerard: friend, and leader of the AOMDA, securing Franco-American relations in the common cause of friendship, liberty and democracy.

• Jacques Cousteau: Renowned oceanographer and filmmaker honoured with the Grand Croix for his contributions to marine science.

• Michel Sardou: Celebrated French singer and songwriter recognized for enriching French music.

• Jean Gabin: Iconic French actor awarded for his significant contributions to cinema.

• Bernard Duhaime: Acknowledged for his dedication to human rights and international law.

Medal Design: The Ordre National du Mérite's insignia features a six-armed Maltese asterisk in blue enamel, centred with a medallion bearing the Republic's effigy. The reverse side displays the motto "Ordre National du Mérite." The medal is suspended from a ribbon of blue silk moiré, symbolizing the order's prestige.

The 2023 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) assessed fourth—and eighth-graders' mathematics and science proficiency across 70 education systems worldwide. The results, released on December 4, 2024, reveal significant insights into global educational standings.

Top Performers:

• Singapore: Consistently leading in education, Singapore's students achieved the highest scores in both mathematics and science at the fourth and eighth-grade levels.This marks the third consecutive TIMSS cycle where Singapore has topped all categories.

• East Asian Regions: Following Singapore, regions such as Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Japan also demonstrated strong performances, particularly in mathematics. For instance, 92% of Japanese eighth-graders reached proficiency in United States:

American students experienced a decline in mathematics scores, with eighth graders ranking 24th out of 45 education systems. This downturn is partly attributed to extended school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupted learning more severely in the U.S. compared to countries with shorter closures.

Australia:

Australian fourth graders achieved their highest mathematics scores since TIMSS began, with 72% meeting the proficiency standard. However, 9% of these students still needed help with basic calculations. In science, Australian students performed slightly better than peers from the U.S. and other countries.

Spain:

Spanish students showed a decline in mathematics and science, with a notable widening of the gender gap in math performance. Regions like Castilla y León and Asturias led in these subjects, while the Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands lagged.

United Kingdom (England):

In England, fourth-grade students maintained high mathematics scores and improved in science, ranking ninth and fifth, respectively. Eighth graders also showed significant improvements, placing sixth in mathematics and fifth in science.

Key Observations:

• Impact of COVID-19: The pandemic's disruption had varied effects globally. Countries with prolonged school closures, like the U.S., faced sharper declines in performance. In contrast, nations with shorter disruptions managed to maintain or improve their standings.

• Gender Disparities: Some countries, including Spain, reported an increasing gender gap in mathematics achievement, with boys outperforming girls.

• Regional Variations: Significant disparities were observed among different regions within countries, highlighting the influence of local educational policies and resources.

After the Korean War ended in 1953, captured Chinese and North Korean soldiers faced various outcomes depending on their allegiances and decisions during the conflict. Here's a detailed account of what happened to these prisoners of war (POWs):

1. The Armistice Agreement and Repatriation

• The Korean Armistice Agreement, signed on July 27, 1953, included provisions for the repatriation of prisoners of war.

• A significant clause allowed POWs to choose whether to return to their home countries or stay in the custody of the opposing side. This was a controversial deviation from earlier practices of automatic repatriation.

2. Screening of POWs

• POWs were screened to determine their preferences:

  • Many Chinese and North Korean soldiers opted not to return to their home countries, fearing punishment for being captured or for showing signs of allegiance to anti-communist forces.

  • Others expressed loyalty to their governments and returned willingly.

3. Fate of Those Who Returned

• North Korean Soldiers:

  • Many returning North Korean soldiers were treated with suspicion and faced harsh consequences.

  • The North Korean government often regarded repatriated POWs as traitors for surrendering to the enemy, leading to imprisonment, reeducation camps, or even execution.

• Chinese Soldiers:

  • Chinese soldiers faced varying treatment upon repatriation to China.

  • Some were reintegrated into society, but others, especially those accused of cooperating with the enemy, were sent to labor camps or faced political persecution.

4. Fate of Those Who Chose Not to Return

• Thousands of Chinese and North Korean POWs chose to defect:

  • Many were resettled in Taiwan, where the Chinese Nationalist government welcomed them as anti-communist allies.

  • Others sought asylum in South Korea or were resettled in third countries, including the United States and Latin American nations.

5. Operation Big Switch and Operation Little Switch

• These were the codenames for the post-war prisoner exchange programs:

  • Operation Little Switch (April-May 1953): Exchanged sick and wounded POWs.

  • Operation Big Switch (August-September 1953): Involved the mass repatriation and release of remaining POWs.

"Pachinko" by Min Jin Lee (2017)

• Overview: Though it spans several decades (early 1900s to 1989), this novel touches on the Korean War and its effects on Korean families living in Japan. It provides context for the war’s consequences on identity, displacement, and intergenerational trauma.

• Why It’s Notable: The sweeping family saga paints a vivid picture of the struggles faced by Koreans during this tumultuous time, making it an excellent introduction to the broader historical period.

"War Trash" by Ha Jin (2004)

• Overview: Though written from a Chinese perspective, this novel provides insight into the experiences of a Chinese soldier captured during the Korean War. It highlights the struggles of POWs and the moral dilemmas they faced.

• Why It’s Notable: The novel's focus on POWs gives readers a nuanced view of the Korean War’s complexities and human cost.

France’s financial situation, like many modern economies, faces a precarious balance due to various structural challenges, debt levels, and economic pressures. Here’s an overview of the key factors contributing to the precarious nature of France’s financial problems:

1. High National Debt

• Debt-to-GDP Ratio: France’s national debt exceeds 110% of its GDP (as of recent years), placing it among the most indebted countries in the European Union.

• Rising Costs of Borrowing: With global interest rates rising, the cost of servicing this debt is increasing, straining the national budget.

• Persistent Deficits: France has run budget deficits almost continuously for decades, contributing to its growing debt burden.

2. Structural Unemployment

• High Unemployment Rates: France historically has one of the higher unemployment rates in Western Europe, especially among youth, exacerbating social inequality and limiting economic growth.

• Rigid Labor Market: Strong labor laws and protections can make hiring and firing employees costly for businesses, which, while protecting workers, can stifle job creation.

3. Pension System Pressure

• Aging Population: France’s pension system, which relies on contributions from the working population, faces strain as the number of retirees grows.

• Political Resistance to Reform: Proposed pension reforms, such as raising the retirement age, often face widespread protests and strikes, making necessary changes politically challenging.

4. Heavy Taxation

• High Tax Burden: France has one of the highest tax burdens in the world, with high rates for both corporations and individuals. This can deter investment and burden businesses, potentially slowing economic growth.

• Public Spending: Despite high taxes, public spending remains among the highest in the EU, often exceeding 55% of GDP. While this funds robust social services, it also contributes to persistent deficits.

5. Energy and Inflation Challenges

• Energy Crisis: Dependence on nuclear energy, while often a strength, has been tested due to delays and maintenance issues in nuclear plants, alongside the broader European energy crisis.

• Inflation: Like many countries, France has faced rising inflation, driven by energy costs and global supply chain disruptions. Inflation erodes purchasing power and complicates monetary policy.

6. EU Membership and Fiscal Constraints

• Stability Pact: As a member of the EU, France is subject to fiscal rules that require keeping deficits and debt under control, though these rules have been temporarily relaxed during crises like COVID-19.

• Pressure from Germany and Northern Europe: Economically conservative EU countries often press France to adopt stricter fiscal policies, creating tension within the union.

7. Sociopolitical Risks

• Protests and Strikes: France is known for its frequent labor strikes and protests, which disrupt economic activity and make structural reforms harder to implement.

• Populism and Political Division: Rising political polarization, with challenges from both far-right and far-left parties, complicates the government’s ability to pass necessary financial reforms.

8. Global Competition

• Stagnant Productivity: Compared to some of its neighbors, France’s productivity growth has stagnated, limiting its ability to compete in a globalized economy.

• Trade Deficit: France has a significant trade deficit, importing more than it exports, which exacerbates its financial vulnerabilities.

Early History and Origins

Emergence in the 9th Century:

The Alawite sect emerged around the 9th century in what is now modern-day Iraq and Syria.

The sect's name, Nusayris, is derived from Muhammad ibn Nusayr, a disciple of the 10th Shia Imam, Ali al-Hadi (828–868). He is believed to have played a pivotal role in shaping Alawite theology.

Theological Foundations:

Alawites are a branch of Shia Islam, venerating Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. However, their beliefs diverged significantly, emphasizing esotericism, mysticism, and elements from other religious traditions.

Their theology includes beliefs in divine emanations, reincarnation, and the veneration of a divine triad: Ali, Muhammad, and Salman the Persian.

Spread to Syria:

The sect migrated from Iraq to the mountainous regions of western Syria to escape persecution by Sunni Muslim rulers during the Abbasid Caliphate.

Medieval History

Persecution and Isolation:

Under the Abbasids, and later the Ottoman Empire, Alawites were often viewed as heretics by Sunni Muslim authorities. This led to widespread discrimination and marginalization.

To protect themselves, Alawites retreated to the rugged mountains of the Latakia region in modern-day Syria, where they lived in isolated communities.

Religious Marginalization:

Alawite beliefs, which incorporate elements of pre-Islamic religions, Christianity, and Gnosticism, further distanced them from mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam.

This isolation reinforced their identity as a secretive and tightly-knit community.

Ottoman Era (1516–1918)

Subjugation under Ottoman Rule:

During the Ottoman Empire, Alawites were marginalized as second-class citizens and forced into servitude by Sunni landlords in the coastal regions.

The Ottomans, like their predecessors, regarded Alawites as heretics and made little effort to integrate them into the broader Islamic society.

French Mandate Period (1920–1946)

Empowerment by the French:

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the French gained control of Syria under the League of Nations Mandate.

The French used a divide-and-rule strategy, favoring minority groups, including Alawites, to weaken Sunni Arab nationalism.

Alawites were heavily recruited into the military and administrative roles, creating new opportunities for upward mobility.

Creation of Alawite State:

In 1922, the French established the State of the Alawites as part of their mandate. While it was later integrated into modern Syria, this period marked the first time Alawites gained political significance.

Rise to Power in Modern Syria

Post-Independence Marginalization (1946–1963):

After Syria gained independence in 1946, Sunni elites dominated the political and economic spheres, leaving Alawites marginalized once again.

However, the military, which had grown in importance during the French Mandate, remained a pathway for Alawite advancement.

Ba'athist Coup and Alawite Ascendancy (1963–1970):

The Ba'ath Party, a secular Arab nationalist movement, seized power in Syria in 1963. Alawite officers gained significant influence within the party and the military.

In 1970, Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite Air Force officer, orchestrated a coup, becoming Syria’s president and consolidating Alawite dominance.

Under Hafez al-Assad and Bashar al-Assad

Hafez al-Assad (1971–2000):

Hafez al-Assad solidified Alawite control over Syria's political, military, and intelligence institutions.

His regime emphasized secularism and Arab nationalism to unify the country, while ensuring the Alawite community retained significant power.

Bashar al-Assad (2000–present):

Bashar al-Assad succeeded his father in 2000. His regime faced growing opposition, culminating in the Syrian Civil War (2011–present).

During the war, the Assad regime has relied heavily on the Alawite community for support, deepening sectarian divides.

Modern Context

Alawite Role in the Syrian Civil War:

The civil war has exacerbated sectarian tensions between Alawites, who largely back the Assad regime, and the Sunni Muslim majority.

Alawites have faced existential threats from extremist groups that view them as heretics, further binding them to the Assad regime for survival.

Demographics and Influence:

Alawites make up about 10–15% of Syria’s population but hold disproportionate political and military power.

The community's reliance on the Assad regime has made them vulnerable to backlash in a post-Assad future.

Maurice de Sully is the architect most responsible for the original design and construction of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. However, he was not an architect; he was the bishop who initiated the project. The names of specific architects involved in the construction are not definitively recorded, as medieval cathedrals were often collaborative efforts involving multiple master builders and craftsmen over decades. However, some historical records and scholarly work highlight key contributors:

Maurice de Sully (1160–1196):

• Role: Bishop of Paris (1160–1196), he conceived and spearheaded the construction of Notre Dame.

• Vision: Sully envisioned a grand Gothic cathedral to replace the older, smaller church on the site. His goal was to create a structure reflecting Paris's growing prominence as a religious and cultural center.

• Foundation: Construction began in 1163, during Sully's tenure, and the cornerstone was likely laid in the presence of Pope Alexander III.

Key Architectural Contributions:

1. Jean de Chelles (mid-13th century):

   • Role: Master builder who worked on Notre Dame during its later stages.

   • Contributions: Credited with significant additions to the transepts, including the intricate rose windows.

1. Pierre de Montreuil (mid-13th century):

1. • Role: Architect who continued the work on the transepts and added some of the decorative details that define the Gothic style of the cathedral.

1. Master Builders:

1. • Many anonymous master builders contributed to the design and construction of Notre Dame, which took roughly 180 years to complete (1163–1345).

   • These craftsmen refined and executed Gothic architectural innovations, including the flying buttresses, ribbed vaults, and pointed arches.

Renovation and Restoration:

• In the 19th century, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a renowned French architect, restored Notre Dame after centuries of neglect and damage. His work included reconstructing the spire and other elements of the cathedral, shaping its modern appearance.

France has been a significant supplier of military equipment to Qatar in recent years, particularly in aircraft, helicopters, and armoured vehicles. Some of the most notable deals include:

Rafale Fighter Jets (€6.7 Billion)

Contract Overview: Qatar signed a deal with Dassault Aviation in 2015 for 24 Rafale fighter jets. In 2017, Qatar ordered an additional 12 jets, bringing the total to 36 Rafales.

2. NH90 Helicopters (€3 Billion)

Contract Overview: Qatar ordered 28 NH90 helicopters from Airbus Helicopters in 2018.

MBDA Missile Systems

Contract Overview: As part of Qatar’s broader defence deals with France, the Aster 30 surface-to-air missiles and Exocet anti-ship missiles were included in the contracts.