The ancient Mediterranean world documented the use of perfumes for the human body and for creating scented environments.

However, this study explores the lesser-known practice of using perfumes on living beings and sculptures. 

Ancient sculptures were not only polychrome and adorned but, in some cases, also scented, creating an experience that engaged both the visuals and the olfactory senses.

Ancient perfumes were denser than modern ones because their base was typically a plant-derived oil or, less commonly, animal fat, in contrast to today’s alcohol-based formulas. 

This is particularly relevant when considering their use on sculptures, as these oily substances were applied like balms or creams, not poured.

Some inscriptions specifically mention the use of myron rhodion, a perfume made from roses. Popular since Homeric times, it was one of the most highly regarded perfumes.

Theophrastos described it as a light fragrance best suited for men, containing rose petals, schoinos, aspalathos, kalamos, and salt.

Dioscurides provided a recipe for myron rhodinon involving oil mixed with schoinos, dry rose petals, and honey. 

The petals were kneaded and pressed, then left overnight; the mixture was strained and reused with fresh petals for several batches.

Pliny noted that rose perfumes were widely adopted and relatively simple, made from common roses. 

Later recipes featured rose blossoms, alamos, honey, sweet rush (incus), and occasionally anchors (alkanet) or cinnabar for colour. Salt was used to slow decay.

Perfumed oils were not the only method for scenting sculptures; flowery wreaths and garlands also served as adornment.

These were common in Greek and Roman life, often made of roses and violets, which added fragrance. Both men and women wore them during festive, secular, and religious events.

Funerary wreaths adorned the deceased. While most organic examples have decayed, miniature versions of lead, terracotta, and gold have survived, particularly in tombs.

Precious metal wreaths also served as temple offerings, as noted in temple inventories, and may have been worn by priests or guests during rites or placed on cult statues.

One prominent example is the Rosalia, or Rosaria, festival, which celebrates roses during the Roman Empire. Roses were widely used in both public and private festive settings.

The Rosalia was not celebrated on a fixed date but typically took place from May to mid-July, aligning with the blooming of roses. 

These festivals are noted in various texts, with the earliest references dating back to the reign of Domitian.

Therefore, in addition to their visual allure, ancient sculptures engaged multiple senses, including smell.

Scented oils and fragrant garlands transformed static images into multisensory experiences, blurring the boundaries between art and ritual and between human and divine.

A History of the Roman Ruins in Palmyra, Syria, and Their Destruction

Ancient Origins of Palmyra

Palmyra, located in modern-day Syria, was one of the most important cities of the ancient world. The "Pearl of the Desert" was a crucial trading hub linking the Roman Empire to Persia, India, and China along the Silk Road. The city dates back to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, but it rose to prominence during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Palmyra became part of the Roman Empire in 64 BCE when Rome annexed Syria. By the 1st century CE, it had grown into a wealthy and cosmopolitan city, thanks to its role as a trade center between the East and the Mediterranean.The Roman Golden Age (1st–3rd Century CE)

During the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, Palmyra flourished under Roman rule. The city blended Roman, Persian, and local influences, creating a unique cultural and architectural style. Some of its most famous structures from this period include:

1. The Temple of Bel (32 CE) was one of the most important religious buildings in the Roman world. It was dedicated to the Mesopotamian god Bel.

2. The Great Colonnade – A nearly 1.2 km (0.75 miles) long monumental street lined with towering Corinthian columns.

3. The Roman Theater – A well-preserved semi-circular structure used for performances and public events.

4. The Tetrapylon – A grand monument marking the intersection of Palmyra’s main roads.

5. Funerary Towers and Tombs – Elaborate sandstone burial monuments showcasing the city's prosperity.

In the 3rd century CE, Queen Zenobia of Palmyra briefly led a rebellion against Rome, establishing the Palmyrene Empire (c. 270–272 CE). However, her rule was short-lived, as Roman Emperor Aurelian crushed the rebellion in 272 CE, bringing Palmyra back under Roman control.

Decline and Abandonment

Palmyra's importance declined after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of Islamic rule in the 7th century CE. It was largely abandoned by the medieval period, though it remained a site of historical interest.

By the 19th and 20th centuries, archaeologists uncovered and restored much of Palmyra’s ruins, making it one of the most famous UNESCO World Heritage sites.

Destruction by ISIS (2015–2017)

In 2015, during the Syrian Civil War, the Islamic State (ISIS) captured Palmyra and deliberately destroyed many of its ancient monuments, considering them idolatrous.

Among the worst acts of destruction:

• The Temple of Bel was dynamited in August 2015.

• The Temple of Baalshamin was blown up in August 2015.

• The Roman Theater – Partially destroyed and used for executions.

• The Tetrapylon – Heavily damaged.

• Several Tower Tombs were reduced to rubble.

ISIS also executed Khaled al-Asaad, an 82-year-old Syrian archaeologist who had overseen Palmyra's preservation for decades.