As of the third quarter of 2024, U.S. retail e-commerce sales reached approximately $300.1 billion, marking a 7.4% increase from the same period in 2023.

Projections for the 2024 holiday shopping season indicate robust online spending.

Adobe Analytics forecasts that Cyber Monday alone will generate $13.2 billion in online sales, a 6.1% rise from the previous year.

Additionally, November's total online expenditure has already hit $107.3 billion, setting the stage for a record-breaking holiday season with an anticipated $241 billion in online spending.

These figures suggest that Americans are on track to spend over $1.2 trillion online in 2024, continuing the upward trend in e-commerce.

Early History and Origins

Emergence in the 9th Century:

The Alawite sect emerged around the 9th century in what is now modern-day Iraq and Syria.

The sect's name, Nusayris, is derived from Muhammad ibn Nusayr, a disciple of the 10th Shia Imam, Ali al-Hadi (828–868). He is believed to have played a pivotal role in shaping Alawite theology.

Theological Foundations:

Alawites are a branch of Shia Islam, venerating Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. However, their beliefs diverged significantly, emphasizing esotericism, mysticism, and elements from other religious traditions.

Their theology includes beliefs in divine emanations, reincarnation, and the veneration of a divine triad: Ali, Muhammad, and Salman the Persian.

Spread to Syria:

The sect migrated from Iraq to the mountainous regions of western Syria to escape persecution by Sunni Muslim rulers during the Abbasid Caliphate.

Medieval History

Persecution and Isolation:

Under the Abbasids, and later the Ottoman Empire, Alawites were often viewed as heretics by Sunni Muslim authorities. This led to widespread discrimination and marginalization.

To protect themselves, Alawites retreated to the rugged mountains of the Latakia region in modern-day Syria, where they lived in isolated communities.

Religious Marginalization:

Alawite beliefs, which incorporate elements of pre-Islamic religions, Christianity, and Gnosticism, further distanced them from mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam.

This isolation reinforced their identity as a secretive and tightly-knit community.

Ottoman Era (1516–1918)

Subjugation under Ottoman Rule:

During the Ottoman Empire, Alawites were marginalized as second-class citizens and forced into servitude by Sunni landlords in the coastal regions.

The Ottomans, like their predecessors, regarded Alawites as heretics and made little effort to integrate them into the broader Islamic society.

French Mandate Period (1920–1946)

Empowerment by the French:

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the French gained control of Syria under the League of Nations Mandate.

The French used a divide-and-rule strategy, favoring minority groups, including Alawites, to weaken Sunni Arab nationalism.

Alawites were heavily recruited into the military and administrative roles, creating new opportunities for upward mobility.

Creation of Alawite State:

In 1922, the French established the State of the Alawites as part of their mandate. While it was later integrated into modern Syria, this period marked the first time Alawites gained political significance.

Rise to Power in Modern Syria

Post-Independence Marginalization (1946–1963):

After Syria gained independence in 1946, Sunni elites dominated the political and economic spheres, leaving Alawites marginalized once again.

However, the military, which had grown in importance during the French Mandate, remained a pathway for Alawite advancement.

Ba'athist Coup and Alawite Ascendancy (1963–1970):

The Ba'ath Party, a secular Arab nationalist movement, seized power in Syria in 1963. Alawite officers gained significant influence within the party and the military.

In 1970, Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite Air Force officer, orchestrated a coup, becoming Syria’s president and consolidating Alawite dominance.

Under Hafez al-Assad and Bashar al-Assad

Hafez al-Assad (1971–2000):

Hafez al-Assad solidified Alawite control over Syria's political, military, and intelligence institutions.

His regime emphasized secularism and Arab nationalism to unify the country, while ensuring the Alawite community retained significant power.

Bashar al-Assad (2000–present):

Bashar al-Assad succeeded his father in 2000. His regime faced growing opposition, culminating in the Syrian Civil War (2011–present).

During the war, the Assad regime has relied heavily on the Alawite community for support, deepening sectarian divides.

Modern Context

Alawite Role in the Syrian Civil War:

The civil war has exacerbated sectarian tensions between Alawites, who largely back the Assad regime, and the Sunni Muslim majority.

Alawites have faced existential threats from extremist groups that view them as heretics, further binding them to the Assad regime for survival.

Demographics and Influence:

Alawites make up about 10–15% of Syria’s population but hold disproportionate political and military power.

The community's reliance on the Assad regime has made them vulnerable to backlash in a post-Assad future.

Maurice de Sully is the architect most responsible for the original design and construction of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. However, he was not an architect; he was the bishop who initiated the project. The names of specific architects involved in the construction are not definitively recorded, as medieval cathedrals were often collaborative efforts involving multiple master builders and craftsmen over decades. However, some historical records and scholarly work highlight key contributors:

Maurice de Sully (1160–1196):

• Role: Bishop of Paris (1160–1196), he conceived and spearheaded the construction of Notre Dame.

• Vision: Sully envisioned a grand Gothic cathedral to replace the older, smaller church on the site. His goal was to create a structure reflecting Paris's growing prominence as a religious and cultural center.

• Foundation: Construction began in 1163, during Sully's tenure, and the cornerstone was likely laid in the presence of Pope Alexander III.

Key Architectural Contributions:

1. Jean de Chelles (mid-13th century):

   • Role: Master builder who worked on Notre Dame during its later stages.

   • Contributions: Credited with significant additions to the transepts, including the intricate rose windows.

1. Pierre de Montreuil (mid-13th century):

1. • Role: Architect who continued the work on the transepts and added some of the decorative details that define the Gothic style of the cathedral.

1. Master Builders:

1. • Many anonymous master builders contributed to the design and construction of Notre Dame, which took roughly 180 years to complete (1163–1345).

   • These craftsmen refined and executed Gothic architectural innovations, including the flying buttresses, ribbed vaults, and pointed arches.

Renovation and Restoration:

• In the 19th century, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a renowned French architect, restored Notre Dame after centuries of neglect and damage. His work included reconstructing the spire and other elements of the cathedral, shaping its modern appearance.

As of November 29, 2024, Russia occupies approximately 18% of Ukraine's territory, encompassing parts of the following regions:

• Crimea: Annexed by Russia in 2014, the Crimean Peninsula remains under Russian control.

• Donetsk and Luhansk Oblasts: Collectively known as the Donbas region, these areas have experienced significant conflict since 2014. Russia declared the annexation of these territories in September 2022, but does not fully control them.

• Kherson and Zaporizhzhia Oblasts: In 2022, Russian forces occupied portions of these southern regions. Despite declaring annexation, Russia does not have complete control over these areas.

The front lines remain dynamic, with ongoing military operations leading to changes in territorial control. Recent reports indicate that Russian forces have made rapid advances in eastern Ukraine, capturing significant territory in regions such as Donetsk and Luhansk.

It's important to note that the international community, including the United Nations, does not recognize Russia's annexation of these Ukrainian territories.

The tradition of the Dallas Cowboys and the Detroit Lions playing on Thanksgiving Day has deep historical and promotional roots in NFL history. Here's why these teams became Thanksgiving Day staples:

The Detroit Lions: Pioneers of Thanksgiving Football

• 1934: The Tradition Begins

  • The Lions' Thanksgiving Day tradition started in 1934. George A. Richards, the team owner, wanted to boost attendance and generate publicity for his newly relocated team (from Portsmouth, Ohio, to Detroit).

  • Richards, who also owned a radio station affiliated with NBC, used his connections to secure a national radio broadcast of the game. This broadcast brought widespread attention to the event.

  • That first Thanksgiving game saw the Lions face the Chicago Bears in front of a sellout crowd at University of Detroit Stadium, cementing the tradition.

• Why It Stuck

  • The Lions have hosted a Thanksgiving game every year since 1934, except during World War II (1939–1944). The consistent scheduling turned Detroit into an annual Thanksgiving football destination.

  • The tradition became a source of pride for the city, even during tough economic times.

The Dallas Cowboys: Joining the Tradition

• 1966: Cowboys Enter the Scene

  • The Cowboys began playing on Thanksgiving in 1966, when the NFL sought to expand the Thanksgiving lineup with a second game. The league approached Dallas, which was still a relatively young franchise, established in 1960.

  • Tex Schramm, the Cowboys' general manager, agreed, seeing it as an opportunity to boost the team's profile nationally.

• Immediate Success

  • The Cowboys’ first Thanksgiving game, against the Cleveland Browns, drew a record crowd of over 80,000 fans and millions of TV viewers, proving the move's success.

• Why They Stayed

  • The Cowboys, known as "America's Team," brought star power and popularity to Thanksgiving Day football. Their games consistently drew high ratings, ensuring the continuation of the tradition.

Modern-Day Thanksgiving NFL Tradition

• Dual Games and Expanding Viewership

  • The Lions always play the early afternoon game, while the Cowboys host the late afternoon game. Since 2006, a primetime Thanksgiving game has been added, featuring rotating teams.

• Cultural Significance

  • Thanksgiving games featuring the Lions and Cowboys are now a beloved American tradition. For many, football is as integral to the holiday as turkey and pumpkin pie.

Summary

The Lions initiated the Thanksgiving tradition in 1934 to promote their team, and the Cowboys joined in 1966 to boost their profile. Their consistent participation and the NFL's growing popularity have made these games a Thanksgiving Day institution.

Sarah Hale used her persuasive writings to support the creation of Thanksgiving as a national holiday. Beginning in 1846, she charged the president and other leading politicians to push for the national celebration of Thanksgiving, which was then only celebrated in the Northeast. Her requests for recognition were largely ignored by politicians until 1863. While the nation was in the Civil War, President Lincoln signed into action “A National Day of Thanksgiving and Praise.” Hale’s letter to Lincoln is often cited as the main factor in his decision. 

Sarah Josepha Hale was born in Newport, New Hampshire, on October 24th, 1788. 

She turned to poetry as a form of income. Her most famous book, Poems for Our Children, included a beloved story from her childhood: “Mary Had a Little Lamb,” which became a popular nursery rhyme.

In 1837, she became the  Godey’s Lady’s Book editor. Her work with the magazine made her one of the most influential voices in the 19th century. Her columns covered everything from women’s education to child-rearing. 

The complexity of the U.S.-Mexico relationship is deeply rooted in a shared history marked by territorial conflicts, economic disparities, and cultural misunderstandings. One prominent historical example is the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) and its aftermath.

The Mexican-American War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo:

1. Conflict Origins:

   • The war stemmed from disputes over the annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845, which Mexico still considered its territory after Texas declared independence in 1836.

   • The U.S. desire for westward expansion, driven by Manifest Destiny, further fueled tensions, especially over California and other territories.

1. The War:

1. • The U.S. invaded Mexican territory, leading to battles across present-day Texas, California, and deep into Mexico, including the capture of Mexico City.

   • Mexican forces, less equipped and internally divided, were ultimately defeated.

1. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848):

1. • Mexico ceded approximately half of its territory to the United States, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and parts of several other states.

   • The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million as compensation, but the loss of land was seen as a national humiliation in Mexico and remains a source of historical grievance.

Lasting Impact:

• Territorial Loss and Resentment:

  • The loss of such a vast amount of land profoundly shaped Mexican national identity and fostered resentment toward the U.S., which Mexico saw as an imperialist power.

• Economic Disparities:

  • The war solidified economic inequalities between the two nations, as the U.S. emerged as a continental power while Mexico struggled with political and economic instability.

The region spanning from Syria on the Mediterranean to the Suez Canal, often referred to historically as the Levant and Egypt, has seen periods of peace and prosperity under various empires and administrations. One period particularly stands out:

The Roman and Byzantine Eras (c. 1st century BCE to 7th century CE)

• Pax Romana (27 BCE – 180 CE):
  During this time, much of the region, including modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel/Palestine, and Egypt, was under Roman rule. The stability brought by the Pax Romana allowed for:

  • Economic prosperity was driven by agriculture, trade, and crafts.

  • Infrastructure development, including roads, aqueducts, and cities like Antioch, Caesarea, and Alexandria.

  • Cultural flourishing with Hellenistic, Roman, and local traditions blending in cities and ports.

• Byzantine Era (4th–7th centuries): The Eastern Roman Empire administered the Levant and Egypt effectively, maintaining trade routes and integrating Christian institutions, which became central to local culture. Despite occasional conflicts, prosperity persisted in key cities like Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria.

The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE)

• Centered in Damascus, Syria, the Umayyads oversaw one of the most peaceful and prosperous periods for the Levant and Egypt. Highlights include:

  • Trade networks linking the Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula, and Asia.

  • Flourishing arts and architecture, including the Great Mosque of Damascus.

  • Efficient administration and integration of diverse religious and cultural groups.

The Fatimid Caliphate (969–1171 CE)

• The Fatimids, based in Egypt, established a stable and prosperous empire that extended into the Levant.

  • Cairo became a major cultural, intellectual, and economic hub.

  • The Caliphate encouraged trade in the Mediterranean and Red Sea, boosting regional wealth.

  • Religious tolerance allowed for coexistence among Muslims, Christians, and Jews.

Key Features of Prosperity and Peace in These Periods:

1. Economic Stability: Agricultural productivity and flourishing trade routes, such as the Silk Road and maritime trade networks.

2. Cultural Exchange: A blend of Greek, Roman, Persian, and local cultures enriched the intellectual and artistic life.

3. Infrastructure: Advanced urban planning, aqueducts, and irrigation systems facilitated growth.

4. Religious Tolerance: Empires that fostered coexistence among diverse religious and ethnic groups experienced fewer internal conflicts.

The Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, with its long history dating back to 1924, has seen its share of unusual and unexpected events. Here are some of the most notable and unusual moments:

1. Balloons Floating Away (1932)

• In the early years, Macy's had no system for deflating the massive balloons after the parade. Instead, they released them into the sky, where they would eventually deflate and fall to the ground. In 1932, a balloon landed in the East River, and another caused a stir when it landed on a ship and broke the rudder, leaving the ship to drift for weeks. Macy's offered a reward for their return, sparking a competitive "balloon hunt."

2. The Cat in the Hat Incident (1997)

• During high winds in 1997, the Cat in the Hat balloon struck a streetlamp, causing debris to fall and seriously injuring a spectator. This incident led to tighter regulations on balloon size and the cancellation of balloons in certain weather conditions.

3. A Tear in Superman (1986)

• The Superman balloon suffered an embarrassing fate when it tore in half during the parade. It became a running joke that Superman had met his kryptonite in the form of strong winds and sharp objects.

4. Sonic the Hedgehog Crash (1993)

• The Sonic the Hedgehog balloon became the first video game character to trash the parade, but strong winds caused it to crash into a lamppost. The accident injured an off-duty police officer and highlighted the risks of handling giant balloons filled with nitrous oxide in poor weather.

5. Barney Deflates in the Rain (1997)

• Heavy rain proved too much for the Barney the Dinosaur balloon, which deflated mid-parade in dramatic fashion. The moment was widely captured on camera, and some even described it as looking like a "melancholy collapse."

6. Unexpected Guest: A Wild Turkey (1993)

• During the parade, a wild turkey wandered onto the route and caused a distraction by ripping off the face of the Grand Marshall. The irony of a turkey crashing a Thanksgiving parade was not lost on the amused crowd.

7. Power Outage Halts the Parade (1941)

• A citywide power outage caused many of the floats and displays to stop mid-route. Despite this, performers continued entertaining because they had nothing else to do.

8. Kermit the Frog Gets Stuck (1985)

• The Kermit the Frog balloon snagged on a tree, puncturing its side. This mishap left Kermit looking deflated.

A bomb cyclone is a term used to describe a rapidly intensifying storm system, usually occurring in mid-latitudes, that undergoes a process called bombogenesis. Here's a breakdown of what it means:

Key Characteristics

1. Rapid Pressure Drop:

   • A bomb cyclone occurs when the central pressure of a storm system drops by 24 millibars or more within 24 hours, signifying an extremely rapid strengthening.

1. Intense Weather Conditions:

1. • High winds

   • Heavy rainfall or snowfall

   • Possible flooding in coastal or low-lying areas

   • Blizzards in cold climates

1. Formation:

1. • Often forms when a cold air mass collides with a warm air mass, such as warm, moist air over the ocean meeting cold air from the poles.

Why It's Called a "Bomb" Cyclone

The term "bomb" refers to the explosive nature of its intensification, which can lead to sudden and severe weather impacts.

Impacts

• On Land:

  • Extreme wind speeds can cause widespread power outages and structural damage.

  • Heavy precipitation can result in floods or snowstorms that disrupt transportation.

• At Sea:

  • Bomb cyclones can produce massive waves and hazardous conditions for ships.

Geographic Occurrence

Bomb cyclones are common along coastlines, where cold and warm air masses meet. They are frequently observed off the east coast of North America, but they can also happen in other parts of the world.

Examples

• A bomb cyclone caused the "Blizzard of 1978" in the U.S..

• A 2021 bomb cyclone brought record rainfall and strong winds to California.

• "To his dog, every man is Napoleon; hence the constant popularity of dogs."
  – Aldous Huxley, writer and philosopher
  
  In the 19th and 20th centuries, several notable individuals blended careers in media or entertainment with involvement in U.S. politics, often using their platforms to influence public opinion or pursue political office. Here are some examples:

   19th Century

  1. Horace Greeley:

      Media: Founder and editor of the New York Tribune, one of the most influential newspapers of the 19th century.

      Politics: Greeley was a prominent political figure who supported the abolitionist movement and ran for president in 1872 as the candidate of the Liberal Republican Party.

  2. P.T. Barnum:

      Entertainment: Known as the Barnum & Bailey Circus founder, Barnum was a master showman and marketer.

      Politics: Served as a member of the Connecticut Legislature and later as the Mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut, using his influence to advocate for causes such as temperance and antislavery.

  3. Frederick Douglass:

      Media: As a former slave, Douglass founded and edited several abolitionist newspapers, including The North Star, to advocate for emancipation and civil rights.

      Politics: Douglass held various political appointments, including U.S. Marshal for the District of Columbia and Minister Resident to Haiti.

   20th Century

  1. William Randolph Hearst:

      Media: Built a vast newspaper empire, including the San Francisco Examiner and New York Journal, and became a pioneer of "yellow journalism."

      Politics: Served as a U.S. Congressman from New York (1903–1907) and unsuccessfully ran for Mayor of New York City and Governor of New York.

  2. Joseph Pulitzer:

      Media: Pulitzer, who published the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and New York World, used his newspapers to champion progressive causes and expose corruption.

      Politics: Served as a U.S. Congressman from New York (1885–1886) and was deeply involved in political advocacy through his media outlets.

  3. Al Jolson:

      Entertainment: A celebrated vaudeville and Broadway performer known for his groundbreaking work in The Jazz Singer (1927), the first "talkie."

      Politics: Actively campaigned for various political figures and supported war efforts during World War II through USO performances.

  4. Ronald Reagan:

      Entertainment: A Hollywood actor and Screen Actors Guild president during the 1940s and 1950s.

      Politics: Transitioned into politics, serving as Governor of California (1967–1975) and later as the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989).

  5. Shirley Temple:

      Entertainment: A child star of the 1930s and one of Hollywood’s most iconic actresses.

      Politics: Served as a U.S. diplomat, including roles as U.S. Ambassador to Ghana (1974–1976) and Czechoslovakia (1989–1992).

  6. Bing Crosby:

      Entertainment: An iconic singer and actor, Crosby became a cultural phenomenon through his music and films.

      Politics: Though he did not hold office, Crosby was an active supporter of various political campaigns, including that of Dwight D. Eisenhower, and used his platform to influence public opinion.

• "A judge who delivers a false judgment is considered as if he destroyed the world."

The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) is the largest public transportation network in the United States, serving the New York metropolitan area, including parts of New Jersey. Its budget is divided into two primary components: the Operating and Capital Budget.

Operating Budget

The Operating Budget covers the day-to-day expenses of running subways, buses, commuter railroads, and other services. For 2024, the MTA's Adopted Operating Budget is approximately $19.29 billion. This budget is allocated as follows:

 Labor Costs: $11.79 billion

 NonLabor Costs: $4.48 billion

 Debt Service Payments: $2.82 billion

These figures are detailed in the New York City Council's budget report. 

Capital Budget

The Capital Budget funds long-term investments in infrastructure, such as system expansions, modernization projects, and significant repairs. The MTA's proposed Capital Plan for 20252029 is $68.4 billion, marking the most important funding request in its history. This plan aims to address critical infrastructure needs and system enhancements. 

Revenue Sources

The MTA's revenue comes from various sources:

Fares and Tolls: Approximately $6.87 billion Dedicated Taxes and Subsidies: Around $7.22 billion

Federal Aid: Including COVIDrelated assistance, totaling about $2.88 billion

The MTA faces significant financial challenges, including:

Funding Gaps: A $16.5 billion gap in the current 20202024 capital plan, initially expected to be funded by congestion pricing, has been delayed. 

Debt Obligations: Debt service payments constitute a substantial portion of the operating budget, impacting financial flexibility.

The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) offers its employees a defined benefit pension plan that guarantees a percentage of the final average salary for life. However, this traditional pension plan is becoming increasingly rare in the private sector, with only an estimated 18% of new hires in large private companies having access to such benefits. 

Pension Plan Costs

The MTA's pension plan costs are a significant component of its financial obligations. For instance, in 2022, the MTA's Defined Benefit Pension Plan reported total assets of approximately $5.37 billion, a decrease from $5.76 billion in 2021. This decline was attributed to underperformance in the plan's investments and contributions net of benefit payments and expenses during the year. 

Employer Contributions

The MTA contributes 8% of an employee's salary each year into the defined contribution plan, more than twice the 3.6% median contribution for typical large private companies. 

Financial Challenges

The MTA faces financial challenges related to its pension obligations. Projections indicate that annual benefit payments are expected to increase between 3.0% and 4.0% over the next decade, rising from $37 million in 2019 to $48 million in 2027. These increases are attributed to demographic and economic factors and costs associated with pension enhancements. 

Medicare and Medicaid are two of the largest federal programs in the United States, both in terms of enrollment and expenditure. Here's an overview of their budgets:

Spending Growth: In 2022, Medicare spending increased by 5.9% to $944.3 billion, accounting for 21% of the nation's total health expenditures. 

Projected Spending: By 2023, Medicare spending will surpass $1 trillion, reflecting the program's expanding role in healthcare financing. 

Medicaid spending grew by 9.6% in 2022, reaching $805.7 billion, representing 18% of total national health expenditures. 

The increase in spending was partly due to a record-high Medicaid enrollment of 91.2 million people in 2023, driven by policy changes and economic factors. 

Together, Medicare and Medicaid constitute a significant portion of federal mandatory spending. In fiscal year 2024, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) proposed a budget with $1.7 trillion in mandatory funding, primarily allocated to these programs. 

Economic Projections: Over the next decade, healthcare spending is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 5.6%, outpacing the projected GDP growth of 4.3%. This trend suggests that healthcare expenditures, including those for Medicare and Medicaid, will consume more of the economy.

Medicare and Medicaid Programs were established by President Lyndon B. Johnson when he signed the Social Security Amendments of 1965 into law.

Leonard D. Schaeffer was the first director of the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA), which later became CMS. He was appointed as HCFA’s first administrator in 1977.

Born on July 28, 1945, in Chicago, Illinois, Schaeffer grew up in Evanston, Illinois. He graduated from Princeton University in 1969. 

He served as the Deputy Director for Management at the Illinois Department of Mental Health and Developmental Disabilities, the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, and the Chairman of the Illinois Capital Development Board. 

In 1978, he was appointed Assistant Secretary for Management and Budget at the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. At age 33, he became the first Administrator of the Health Care Financing Administration (now the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services), overseeing Medicare and Medicaid programs. 

Transitioning to the private sector, Schaeffer held significant roles:

In 1986, Schaeffer became President and CEO of Blue Cross of California, which was near bankruptcy. He created WellPoint Health Networks in 1993. WellPoint became a leading health benefits company. 

Student Loan Marketing Association: As Executive Vice President and Chief Operating Officer, he managed the national secondary market for student loans. 

He is currently the Judge Robert Maclay Widney Chair and Professor at the University of Southern California (USC) and is a Senior Advisor to Whistler Capital Partners, a private equity firm.

Schaeffer serves on various boards, including the Brookings Institution and RAND Corporation.

The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) was established on October 15, 1966, by an act of Congress and officially began operations on April 1, 1967. It was created to consolidate federal transportation functions under one umbrella, addressing the increasing complexity of the nation's transportation systems and the need for coordinated policy-making.

 Current Structure, Responsibilities, and Numbers

 Employment

- The DOT employs approximately 55,000 people, including full-time federal employees and contractors, across its various branches and agencies.

Divisions and Branches

The DOT oversees 13 agencies with distinct responsibilities:

1. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA): Regulates and oversees civil aviation.

2. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA): Manages the national highway system.

3. Federal Transit Administration (FTA): Oversees public transit systems.

4. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA): Regulates railroads and promotes rail safety.

5. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA): Promotes vehicle safety and road safety standards.

6. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA): Ensures safe transportation of hazardous materials.

7. Maritime Administration (MARAD): Promotes and regulates the U.S. merchant marine and waterborne transportation.

8. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA): Regulates the trucking industry.

9. Office of the Secretary (OST): Provides overall policy and leadership.

10. Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation (GLS): Maintains and operates the seaway.

11. Office of Inspector General (OIG): Conducts audits and investigations.

12. Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation (SLSDC): Focuses on seaway operations.

13. Build America Bureau: Supports infrastructure investments and innovation.

 Budget

- The DOT’s annual budget is typically around $87 billion, funding transportation infrastructure, safety programs, and research initiatives.

 Key Responsibilities

- Safety Regulation: Establishing safety standards for all modes of transportation.

- Infrastructure Development: Overseeing construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, airports, and ports.

- Policy Making: Coordinating national transportation policies and priorities.

- Innovation: Supporting the development of autonomous vehicles, electric vehicles, and modernized air traffic systems.

- Public Transit Support: Providing grants to improve urban and rural transit systems.

 Key Figures and Circumstances Behind Its Creation

1. President Lyndon B. Johnson:

   - President Johnson was a central figure in the creation of the DOT. He championed its establishment as part of his broader vision for modernizing America's infrastructure and ensuring safety and efficiency in transportation. He signed the Department of Transportation Act into law in 1966.

2. Alan S. Boyd:

   - Alan S. Boyd was the first Secretary of Transportation, sworn in on January 16, 1967. He played a pivotal role in shaping the department during its formative years.

   - Background:

     - Before becoming Secretary of Transportation, Boyd served as the Chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board and the Under Secretary of Commerce for Transportation. These roles gave him valuable experience in managing and regulating complex transportation systems.

Alan S. Boyd (July 20, 1922 – October 18, 2020) was an influential figure in U.S. transportation history, known as the first Secretary of Transportation and a trailblazer in the aviation and transportation industries.

 Early Life and Education

- Born: July 20, 1922, in Jacksonville, Florida.

- Education:

  - Graduated from the University of Florida in 1941.

  - Earned a law degree from the University of Virginia in 1948 after serving in World War II.

 Military Service

- Boyd served in the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II, where he gained firsthand knowledge of aviation that would later influence his career.

 Career Highlights

1. Early Career in Transportation:

   - Boyd worked as a lawyer specializing in transportation law, which marked the beginning of his deep involvement in the field.

2. Chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) (1961–1965):

   - Appointed by President John F. Kennedy, Boyd became the youngest CAB chairman in history.

   - He helped usher in a new era of air travel, focusing on deregulation and modernization.

   - Advocated for fair competition and affordable airfares, promoting growth in the aviation sector.

3. Under Secretary of Commerce for Transportation (1965–1967):

   - Boyd served in the Department of Commerce, where he oversaw transportation policies and programs. His work there set the stage for the creation of the Department of Transportation.

4. First Secretary of Transportation (1967–1969):

   - Appointed by President Lyndon B. Johnson as the first Secretary of the newly established U.S. Department of Transportation.

   - Boyd unified disparate federal transportation agencies under one umbrella, fostering better coordination and efficiency.

   - Focused on aviation safety, highway infrastructure, and urban transportation issues.

   - Promoted innovation in transportation policy and systematized safety protocols across various modes of transit.

5. Later Career:

   - President of Illinois Central Railroad (1969–1972): Boyd shifted focus to the private sector, helping modernize one of the nation's key railroads.

   - President of Amtrak (1978–1982): Boyd played a significant role in guiding the national passenger rail system through its formative years, addressing operational and financial challenges.

 Legacy and Recognition

- Boyd is celebrated as a pioneer in U.S. transportation policy, advocating for modernization, safety, and efficiency across all modes of transit.

- His leadership during the creation of the DOT solidified the department’s role as a cornerstone of American infrastructure development.

 Personal Life and Passing

- Boyd married Flavil Townsend in 1943, and they had two children.

- He passed away on October 18, 2020, in Seattle, Washington, at the age of 98. Boyd's career left an enduring impact on U.S. transportation systems and policies.

 Major Controversies Involving the DOT

1. Airline Deregulation (1978)

   - The Airline Deregulation Act, passed during President Jimmy Carter's administration, marked a significant shift in DOT policy. While deregulation reduced fares and increased competition, it led to controversies such as the decline of smaller regional airlines and reduced service to rural areas.

2. Infrastructure Funding Shortfalls

   - Controversy has frequently surrounded the funding and management of infrastructure projects, including debates over gas tax increases, mismanagement of highway funds, and disputes between federal and state governments over spending priorities.

3. Highway Safety Standards

   - The DOT’s National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has faced criticism over its handling of vehicle recalls, such as the Takata airbag scandal and the General Motors ignition switch defects, both of which were linked to fatalities.

4. Air Traffic Modernization (NextGen)

   - The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), a part of the DOT, has struggled with implementing NextGen, a multibillion-dollar program to modernize air traffic control. Delays, budget overruns, and resistance from airlines and air traffic controllers have plagued the program.

5. Bridge and Tunnel Safety

   - High-profile disasters like the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River Bridge in 2007 raised questions about DOT oversight and funding of bridge safety programs.

6. Pipeline Safety

   - The DOT’s Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) has faced scrutiny for its response to major pipeline spills, such as the 2010 Kalamazoo River oil spill, which was the largest inland oil spill in U.S. history.

7. High-Speed Rail Projects

   - DOT’s support for high-speed rail has sparked controversy, particularly in California, where costs for the state’s bullet train project ballooned, leading to criticism of DOT’s oversight and allocation of federal funds.

8. Climate Change Policies

   - Recent controversies have included debates over the DOT’s role in promoting electric vehicles (EVs) and fuel efficiency standards, with conflicts between industry groups, environmentalists, and state governments.

Simon Ramo is frequently cited as the father of the US Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) system and the founder of systems engineering.
Ramo later created Space Technology Laboratories (STL) as a subsidiary of Ramo-Wooldridge Corp. a year before the USSR’s Sputnik launch. STL was the first US company to receive a contract for a spacecraft from the newly established National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). An STL spacecraft was the first to reach the outer planets and to go beyond the solar system into far outer space.

Ramo held more than 40 patents, the last of which he received at the age of 100. Thus, he is the oldest patent holder in US history.

He received numerous awards and honors, including the National Medal of Science (1979) from President Jimmy Carter for his pioneering work in electronics research and development. President Gerald Ford appointed him chair of the President’s Advisory Committee on Science and Technology. In 1983, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civilian award, from President Ronald Reagan. He was inducted into the Business Hall of Fame and, in 1999, received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Smithsonian Institution.

He died June 27, 2016, at age 103, in his home in Santa Monica.

Flossi Dislikes Tyrants, Dictators and Fools

H.L. Mencken, the American journalist, satirist, and cultural critic, was known for his biting wit and cynical views on politics, government, and the masses.

 On Politics and Politicians

"The urge to save humanity is almost always only a false face for the urge to rule it."

"A good politician is quite as unthinkable as an honest burglar."

"All government, in essence, is a conspiracy against the superior man. Its one permanent object is to oppress him and cripple him."

"The demagogue is one who preaches doctrines he knows to be untrue to men he knows to be idiots.”

"Democracy is the theory that the common people know what they want and deserve to get it good and hard."

 On Authoritarianism and Government

"The worst government is often the most moral. One composed of cynics is often very tolerant and humane. But when fanatics are on top, there is no limit to oppression."

"Every decent man is ashamed of the government he lives under."

"Government is a broker in pillage, and every election is a sort of advance auction sale of stolen goods."

 On the Masses and Democracy

"No one ever went broke underestimating the intelligence of the American public.”

"The average man does not want to be free. He simply wants to be safe."

"Democracy is the art and science of running the circus from the monkey cage."

 On Human Nature and Society

"The capacity of human beings to bore one another seems to be vastly greater than that of any other animal."

"Puritanism: The haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy."

"The average man avoids truth as diligently as he avoids arson, regicide, or piracy on the high seas, and for the same reason: because he has no use for it."

Flossi and The Mega Coral in the Solomon Islands

The discovery of corals as marine organisms with skeletal structures can be traced back to ancient times. Still, the scientific understanding and documentation of corals began to take shape during the Renaissance:

1. Ancient Observations:

   - Aristotle (384–322 BC) and other ancient scholars like Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24 – 79) wrote about coral in their works. They knew of the red coral, commonly used for jewellery, but didn't understand the biological nature of corals.

2. Renaissance and Early Modern Science:

   - Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) studied corals and even suggested that the fossils found in the mountains might indicate that these areas were once under the sea, showing an early understanding of geological processes related to corals.

   - Conrad Gessner (1516–1565), in his book "De Omni rerum fossilium genere, gems, lapidibus, metallic, et huiusmodi" (1565), included descriptions of coral, treating them as plant-like organisms.

3. Scientific Recognition:

   - Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) was instrumental in formally classifying life forms. In his system of binomial nomenclature, he placed corals in the plant kingdom, which was a common mistake at the time since their animal nature wasn't fully understood. He grouped them under the genus Corallium.

4. Modern Understanding:

   - The animal nature of corals was not widely recognised until much later. Jean-André Peyssonnel (1694–1759), in the 18th century, was one of the first to argue that corals were animals, not plants, based on his observations of their growth and reproduction. However, his ideas were not immediately accepted.

   Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) contributed significantly to understanding corals as animals in the 19th century through his palaeontology and comparative anatomy work. He studied both living and fossil corals extensively.

Here are some of the world's notable largest coral structures or colonies:

1. Great Barrier Reef (Australia):

   - This is the world's largest coral reef system, stretching over 2,300 kilometres (1,429 miles) along the northeast coast of Australia. It's not a single coral colony but a vast system comprising over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands, covering approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 square miles).

2. The Mega Coral in the Solomon Islands:

   Recently discovered, this coral is reported to be the largest individual coral colony in the world. It is about 112 feet wide and 105 feet long and has an estimated age of 300 to 500 years. It's so large that it can be seen from space.

3. Big Momma (American Samoa):

   Before the Solomon Islands coral discovery, "Big Momma" was considered the largest. This coral colony, located in the National Park of American Samoa, measures about 22.4 meters across and 8 meters tall. It's estimated to be between 420 and 652 years old.

4. Raja Ampat (Indonesia):

   While not a single coral is found in the Raja Ampat archipelago, it is renowned for its incredibly high coral diversity, hosting more than 537 species. This area is part of the Coral Triangle, a marine region known for its rich biodiversity.

5. New Caledonia Barrier Reef (France):

   - This is the second-largest coral reef system in the world, encompassing over 1,500 kilometres of the reef. It forms a double barrier reef around the main island of New Caledonia and includes the world's largest lagoon, covering around 9,000 square miles.

6. Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System:

   - Extending over 1,000 kilometres from the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico down through Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras, this is the second largest barrier reef in the world after the Great Barrier Reef.

7. Red Sea Coral Reef:

   - Known for its resilience to high water temperatures, the Red Sea has one of the longest continuous reef systems, stretching approximately 2,000 kilometres along the coastline of various countries, including Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan.

The composition of the U.S. Cabinet has evolved significantly since the country's founding, reflecting changes in governmental roles, priorities, and the expansion of federal responsibilities. Here’s an overview of how it has transformed over time:

 1. The Original Cabinet (1789)

   - Established by George Washington, the first U.S. Cabinet had only four departments:

     - Secretary of State (Thomas Jefferson)

     - Secretary of the Treasury (Alexander Hamilton)

     - Secretary of War (Henry Knox)

     - Attorney General (Edmund Randolph)

   - These positions were designed to handle the primary concerns of the new nation: foreign relations, finances, defence, and legal matters.

 2. 19th Century Additions

   - As the U.S. expanded geographically and economically, new departments were created to handle specialised areas:

     - Navy Department (1798) - Eventually merged with the Department of War to form the Department of Defense in 1947.

     Post Office Department (1829): Initially part of the Cabinet, it was reorganised as the independent U.S. Postal Service in 1971.

     The Department of the Interior (1849) was created to manage domestic issues such as Native American affairs, public lands, and natural resources.

     Department of Justice (1870): Although the Attorney General had existed since 1789, this formally established it as a department.

 3. Early 20th Century Expansions

   - Rapid industrialisation and progressive reforms led to further Cabinet expansion:

     - Department of Agriculture (1889) - Responded to the growing importance of farming.

     - Department of Commerce and Labor (1903) - Split in 1913 to create two separate departments as labour issues grew in importance:

       - Department of Commerce

       - Department of Labor

 4. Post-War and Modern Additions (20th Century)

   - With the New Deal, WWII, and the rise of modern government, several new departments were established to address the complex needs of a changing society:

     - Department of Defense (1947) - Merged the Department of War and the Department of the Navy, adding the newly created Air Force.

     - Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (1953) - Later split to form:

       - Department of Health and Human Services (1979)

       - Department of Education (1979)

     - Department of Housing and Urban Development (1965) - Focused on urban issues and housing.

     - Department of Transportation (1967) - Created in response to the need for federal transportation oversight.

     - Department of Energy (1977) - Addressed the importance of energy policy.

 5. Recent Additions and Homeland Security (21st Century)

   - The 21st century saw two new departments reflecting national security and veterans' needs:

     - Department of Veterans Affairs (1989) - Elevated to Cabinet status to address the growing needs of veterans.

     - Department of Homeland Security (2003) - Established in response to the 9/11 attacks, consolidating multiple agencies to protect against terrorism and manage border security.

 6. Cabinet-Level Positions Beyond Departments

   - In addition to department heads, other positions now hold Cabinet-level status:

     - U.S. Trade Representative

     - Director of National Intelligence

     - Ambassador to the United Nations

     - Director of the Office of Management and Budget

     - Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency

     - Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers

     - Small Business Administration Administrator (sometimes included)

 Trends and Observations

   - Growth in Number: The Cabinet started with four members and has grown to more than 15 departments and various other Cabinet-level positions.

   - Specialization and Complexity: Cabinet positions reflect the specialisation required by a more complex society and government responsibilities.

   - Security and Welfare: Recent additions emphasise national security, welfare, and environmental concerns, aligning with modern priorities.

The record for the highest number of new members in the U.S. Congress was set during the 63rd Congress (1913–1915), when a large wave of new members joined following the election of 1912. This influx was mainly due to several unique factors:

1. Electoral Changes: The 17th Amendment, which established the direct election of senators, was ratified in 1913, leading to the election of new senators in several states.

2. Political Shifts: The 1912 election saw a significant split in the Republican Party. Former President Theodore Roosevelt ran as a Progressive (or "Bull Moose" candidate), which divided the vote and led to a Democratic landslide in Congress and the White House with the election of Woodrow Wilson. This shift brought many new members from both parties.

3. Territorial Changes: The addition of Arizona and New Mexico as states in 1912 also increased congressional representation.

During this period, he marked a unique transformation in Congress, with an influx of freshman senators and representatives, creating one of the most substantial turnovers in the history of the legislative body.

During the 63rd Congress (1913–1915), the Senate Majority Leader Thomas S. Martin (D-VA) and Vice President Thomas R. Marshall as the presiding officer led the Senate. However, the concept of a formal “majority leader” was not as established as today, and party leadership was more informal. Woodrow Wilson was president then, with Democrats holding the majority in both the Senate and the House.

Here’s a closer look at both key figures:

 Thomas S. Martin

Given his influence and seniority, Thomas Staples Martin of Virginia was considered the de facto leader of the Democrats in the Senate. However, he did not hold the title "majority leader" in the same sense it is understood today. Martin was a conservative Democrat and a proponent of states’ rights who often worked to unify his party behind important legislation.

Background and Accomplishments:

Early Life and Career: Martin was a Confederate veteran who served in the Civil War as a teenager. After the war, he studied law at the University of Virginia, which propelled him into a career in law and politics in Virginia.

- Political Influence: As a senior Democratic senator, he was influential in helping President Wilson pass landmark Progressive Era legislation, including the Federal Reserve Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act.

- Advocacy for States’ Rights: Martin often aligned with the South’s conservative bloc, opposing specific Progressive reforms that he felt overreached federal authority.

 Vice President Thomas R. Marshall

Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana served as Vice President and was technically the Senate’s presiding officer. He was a lawyer and the former governor of Indiana known for his wit and dry humour.

Background and Accomplishments:

- Early Life and Career: Marshall was a lawyer and served as the governor of Indiana from 1909 to 1913. His governorship was known for implementing progressive reforms, such as child labour laws and educational improvements.

- Role as Vice President: Although primarily ceremonial at the time, Marshall was known for his humorous remarks and amicable personality. He famously quipped, “What this country needs is a good five-cent cigar.”